- A Buddhist View of Women: A Comparative Study of the
Rules for Bhik.su.niis and Bhik.sus Based on the Chinese Praatimok.sa
By In Young Chung
Abstract
A generalized view of women in Buddhism is imposed by almost one hundred additional
rules and the "Eight Rules" upon nuns. Some scholars, writers, and practitioners
have asserted that the rules in the Praatimok.sa subordinate nuns to monks.
However, I argue that the additional paaraajikas for nuns treat sexual matters
seriously because of the fertility of females. Some sa.mghaava"se.sas for nuns
provide safeguards against falling victim to lustful men. Some ni.hsargika-paayantikas
for monks forbid them from taking advantage of nuns. Two aniyatas for monks show a
landmark in trust in women. Furthermore, seven adhikara.na"samathas provide
evidence of the equality of men and women. Many of the additional paayantikas for
nuns originated because of nuns' living situations and social conditions in ancient India.
Finally, the totally different tone and discrepancies in penalties for the same offenses
between the paayantikas and the "Eight Rules" suggest that the
"Eight Rules" were appended later.
INTRODUCTION
I will make known the course of training for monks, founded on ten reasons: for the
excellence of the Order, for the comfort of the Order, for the restraint of evil-minded
men, for the ease of well-behaved monks, for the restraint of the cankers belonging to the
here and now, for the combating of the cankers belonging to other worlds, for the benefit
of non-believers, for the increase in the number of believers, for establishing dhamma
indeed, for following the rules of restraint. Thus, monks, this course of training should
be set forth.(1)
Vinaya-Pi.taka
There is a generalized view of women in Buddhism implied in the Buddhist monastic rules
for bhik.su.niis(2) and bhik.sus(3) in the vinaya.(4) Referring to the monastic rules for bhik.su.niis, most Buddhist
scholars, writers and practitioners agree that the rules in the vinaya subordinated
the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha(5) to the Bhik.su
Sa"ngha.(6) Many people are also potentially
misled into thinking that the rules in the vinaya are unfairly more harsh for bhik.su.niis
because of the larger number of rules, including the "Eight Rules,"(7) which are only for bhik.su.niis. In addition,
many bhik.sus and even bhik.su.niis believe that bhik.su.niis must be
subordinated to bhik.sus because of the prescriptions set forth in the Eight Rules.
As a result, some Buddhist scholars, writers, and practitioners claim that bhik.su.niis
as women have been discriminated against in the monastic rules. For example, Kate Wheeler
asserts:
He [Gautama Buddha] required nuns to submit to Eight Special Rules(8) explicitly subjugating them to monks . . . and later added at least 84
additional precepts for nuns on top of the monks' 227, often stipulating worse penalties
for similar infractions.(9)
Diana Y. Paul explains the vinaya:
The first text translated below describes the subordination of the nun's community to
that of the monks, indicating the lack of autonomy among the women's community and their
subsequent deprivation of the power to define their religious obligations along norms that
they themselves established. Unlike the Christian organizational structure of nuns which
was separate from that of monks, the Buddhist nuns in ancient Indian society were
accountable to the monks, and their organizational structure was subordinate to that of
the monks. They were directly governed by the monks at joint meetings of both orders.(10)
Rita M. Gross also describes the vinaya rules as:
. . . placing all nuns lower in the hierarchy than any monks . . . .(11)
Nancy Schuster Barnes explains the rules:
However, by imposing rules on nuns which would place them in a permanently inferior
position in all their interactions with monks, the monks reserved for themselves the
control and leadership of the entire sa"ngha.(12)
Richard H. Robinson and Willard L. Johnson say:
The Blessed One [Gautama Buddha] conceded that women are able to attain arhant-ship
but laid eight special regulations on the nuns, subordinating them strictly to the Order
of Monks.(13)
Susan Murcott mentions:
The nun's sa"ngha modeled itself after the monks' sa"ngha, only
the nuns' rules and regulations were stricter. The purpose of these stricter rules was to
keep women's supposedly more wayward nature under control and to keep final authority in
the hands of the monks.(14)
Richard Gombrich contends:
. . . [T]here were two social hierarchies he [Gautama Buddha] never questioned: age and
sex.(15)
Uma Chakravarti comments:
A wide range of restrictions were placed on bhik.su.niis, who were even required
to offer their alms to the monks if they ran into them.(16)
Audrey Mck. Fernandez mentions:
However, even today there are a couple of hundred more rules for women than men, which
has rankled women and has kept who knows how many from leaving lay life.(17)
Although most Buddhist scholars and writers contend that bhik.su.niis were
subordinated to bhik.sus by having so many additional rules and the Eight Rules
imposed upon them, I disagree. Rather, a close and comparative examination of the Buddhist
monastic rules for both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus reveals a compassionate
and practical regulation of the daily monastic life of both men and women, based on the
realities of life at the time the rules were formulated. This is seen in the meticulous
care and compassionate understanding of women's "alms life"(18) in the vinaya. It is perhaps a mistake to depend solely on the
existence of the additional monastic rules for bhik.su.niis, without examining
their origin or social context, to form a generalized Buddhist view of women.
Therefore, the main purpose of this paper is to examine the rules for bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus in the Praatimok.sa.(19)
I believe that the guidelines for discipline set down in the rules in the Bhik.su.nii
and the Bhik.su Praatimok.sas allow us to infer a Buddhist attitude toward women.
This paper, by comparing the rules for both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus,
presents a different interpretation of the rules.
The text used in this paper is primarily from the Chinese Ssu fen lu, the vinaya
of the Dharmaguptaka School.(20) However,
because no English translation of the Chinese Ssu fen lu is available, when the
rules are the same in both the Chinese and the Paali Vinayas,(21) I prefer to use an English translation of the Paali vinaya
because this text is easily accessible to Westerners. According to W. Pachow,
The Dharmaguptaka [vinaya] follows very closely the Paali texts in most
cases, not merely in numbering the series but also in contents, except the VII section in
which, it adds 26 prohibitory rules regarding the Stuupa.(22) And that is unique among all the available texts.(23)
E. Frauwallner also says that the Dharmaguptaka vinaya is one of the most
complete and well preserved of the vinayas. Its numbers and contents are very close
to those of the Paali vinaya.(24)
Sukumar Dutt says:
The most complete body of the monastic laws, however, is to be found in the
Vinayapi.taka of the Theravaada Paali canon.(25)
Chatsumarn Kabilsingh also explains that although there is no definite proof that the
Paali vinaya is the oldest and the only original text, through a comparative study
of the rules in six vinaya schools,(26)
she suggests that the Paali vinaya did not have any rules added to it later as did
the other vinayas, and that its contents are very old because the rules in the
Paali vinaya are always shared with either one or more of the other schools.(27) The Paali vinaya has been transmitted
by the Theravaada School and is observed by Theravaadin bhik.sus today. The
translations of the Paali vinaya available in English are: Hermann Oldenberg's
translation,(28) T. W. Rhys David's and H.
Oldenberg's(29) and I. B. Horner's.(30)
On the other hand, the Dharmaguptaka vinaya was translated into the Chinese as
the Ssu fen lu tsung or Caturvaga vinaya by Buddhayasas with Chu Fo-nien,
possibly between 410 and 412 C. E. in the capital of China, Ch'ang-an.(31) The Chinese Ssu fen lu (vinaya of the Four Divisions)
consists of four parts: Bhik.su-vibha"nga,(32) Bhik.su.nii-vibha"nga,(33) Skandhaka,(34) and
the appendices. The Ssu fen lu has been very influential and widely used in East
Asian Buddhist countries.
The Praatimok.sa of Dharmaguptaka was used in all convents of China as
the disciplinary code. Beside, the vinaya school (Ssu-fen-Lu tsung), founded
in China by Tao-hsuan, also accepted the disciplinary rules of the Dharmaguptaka as
the most authoritative work.(35)
The rules contained in the Ssu fen lu are still observed by the Chinese, Korean
and Vietnamese bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis today. Even though the only Bhik.su.nii
sa"ngha existing in the world is in the tradition of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya,
so far as I have been able to discover the Chinese Ssu fen lu is not available in
English, particularly the rules for bhik.su.niis. In her book A Comparative
Study of Bhikkhunii Paa.timokkha, Kabilsingh says that she used the Chinese Dharmagutaka
vinaya which had been translated into Thai.(36)
In the following, I give the meanings of the rules, rather than translating word for word.
In order to understand the rules more easily, I have included comparative tables of the
rules for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus side by side in each category of the Praatimok.sas.
The Praatimok.sa is a collection of monastic rules contained in the vinaya
Pi.taka(37) (Basket of Discipline), one of
the three large collections of the Buddhist canon known as the Tripi.taka. In addition to
the vinaya Pi.taka, the Tripi.taka includes the Suutra Pi.taka (Basket of
Discourses), and the Abhidharma Pi.taka (Basket of the Special Teaching). Many
scholars have explained the possible meaning of the Sanskrit word Praatimok.sa(Paali:
Paa.timokkha), but these explains remain speculative. Sukumar Dutt and Gokuldas De,
who represent the majority opinion, say:
Paa.timokkha . . . can be equated to Skt. Praatimok.sa, which from its
etymological parts lends itself to interpretation as something serving for a bond, the
prefix praati meaning "against" and the root mok.sa meaning
"scattering," though I have not been able to discover any instance of the use of
the word precisely in this sense in Sanskrit.(38)
The term 'Paa.timokkha' is best derived from the word 'mok.sa' meaning
freedom with the prefix 'prat' which reverses its meaning when joined to it (cf. pratisrota,
pratigaami, pratikula, etc.). Praatimok.sa, an adjective, meaning
'opposed to freedom,' 'bound down,' when changed to a noun becomes Praatimok.sa
which in Paali takes the form 'paa.timokkha' meaning that which is 'binding upon'
and it is exactly in this sense that the code 'Paa.timokkha' is used.(39)
The Praatimok.sa contains the Bhik.su Praatimok.sa and the Bhik.su.nii
Praatimok.sa because it concerns both bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis. The Dharmaguptaka
vinaya, the Ssu fen lu, also contains the monastic rules for bhik.sus
and bhik.su.niis in the sections known as the Bhik.su Ssu fen lu and the Bhik.su.nii
Ssu fen lu. The Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu has seven categories of rules, while the
Bhik.su Ssu fen lu contains eight categories, adding the aniyata dharmas(undetermined
rules).(40) In order to make a complete comparative
analysis of the rules in each category in the Praatimok.sa, I will cover each
category of the rules chapter by chapter in turn: paaraajika dharmas(defeat), sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas(formal meeting), aniyata dharmas(undetermined), ni.hsargika-paayantika
dharmas(forfeiture), paayantika dharmas(expiation), pratide"saniiya
dharmas(confession), "saik.sa dharmas(training), and
adhikara.na-"samatha dharmas (legal questions).(41) Finally, I will explore the interpolation of the Eight Rules which are
mandated for bhik.su.niis only, by comparing the Eight Rules and the Bhik.su.nii
paayantika Rules.
PART I
Paaraajika Dharma(Defeat)
The categories of rules in the Ssu fen lu and the Paali vinaya are
arranged in order of the severity of the offenses. The most serious offenses against
monastic life are the paaraajika dharmas(Paali: paaraajika) for both bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus. I. B. Horner explains the term paaraajika as follows:
Burnouf's idea (adopted by Childers and others) is that paaraajika is derived
from para + aj, meaning a crime which involves the expulsion or exclusion of
the guilty party. Para + aj may be a better source, grammatically speaking,
for paaraajika then is para-ji. Yet, that the sense intended is
"defeat," seems to me rather less doubtful than that it is expulsion, and aj,
though a Vedic root, meaning "to drive away," is unknown as a root in Paali.(42)
E. J. Thomas says that "Buddhaghosa interprets paaraajika as suffering
defeat, and the Muulasarvaastivaadins appear to do the same, but the earliest
commentary in the vinaya gives no suggestion of this meaning."(43)
In explaining the term paaraajika dharmas(Chinese: po luo yi fa) the Ssu
fen lu says that if a bhik.su [or bhik.su.nii] commits a paaraajika
offense, he [she] is compared with "a person whose head is cut off." The
offender totally loses his [her] monastic status and is no longer in association with the
pure bhik.su.niis or bhik.sus.(44)
In this category, we see that bhik.su.niis have four additional rules concerning
sexual behaviors. If a bhik.su is involved in a sexual offense in this category,
the bhik.su is required to leave the Bhik.su sa"ngha. In the same way,
if a bhik.su.nii has committed a sexual offense in this category, she is also
required to leave the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. However, the result of the bhik.su.nii's
sexual offense may lead to pregnancy because bhik.su.niis are potentially fertile.
For this reason, the four additional rules in this category are restricted rules to bhik.su.niis.
The paaraajika dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 1
Paaraajika dharmas (Defeat)
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same Rules for Bhik.sus(45) |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(46) |
| 1 |
1 |
Not to have sexual intercourse |
| 2 |
2 |
Not to steal |
| 3 |
3 |
Not to kill a human or one who has human form of life |
| 4 |
4 |
Not to falsely claim to have attained superhuman
perfection |
| 5 |
|
Not to touch and rub a man who is filled with sexual
desire(47) |
| 6 |
|
Not to involve in the special eight actions(48) with a man who is filled with desire |
| 7 |
|
Not to condone or conceal another bhik.su.nii's
paaraajika offense |
| 8 |
|
Not to follow a bhik.su who is suspended by the sa"ngha
in spite of being admonished a third time(49) |
As table number one shows, bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus share the first four
paaraajika dharmas. There are four additional rules (#5, 6, 7, 8) for bhik.su.niis.
Violation of any one of the paaraajika dharmas has no possibility of rehabilitation
and entails permanent expulsion from the sa"ngha.(50) Two rules (#5, 6) of the additional rules for bhik.su.niis deal
with sexual offenses, number seven with concealing another bhik.su.nii's paaraajika
offense, and number eight with a bhik.su who is suspended by the sa"ngha.
Without having sufficient knowledge of the Buddhist view of women, some may think that the
four more rules were added because of women's unrestrained sexual desires. For example, a
Korean (male) Buddhist scholar, Jung-shup Han, comments on the Bhik.su.nii Paaraajika
additional rules:
We should understand the reasons why Gautama Buddha refused to found the Bhik.su.nii
sa"ngha and laid down four additional rules for bhik.su.niis than for bhik.sus
in this category. Because bhik.su.niis' sexual desires were lustful and
uncontrollable, they had sexual relations with Buddhist lay people, non-Buddhists or even bhik.sus.
Thus they created serious problems in the Buddhist community and caused the fall of the
pure dharma during the time of the Buddha.(51)
However, Richard F. Gombrich points out:
. . . [I]t is noteworthy that the Buddha did not hold the view, so widespread in
traditional India and elsewhere, that sexual desire is the women's fault and sexual
intercourse the result of female temptation of the male . . . . More substantial is his
sermon which describes sexual desire of men for women and of women for men in identical
terms.(52)
Gross also mentions:
Interestingly, though many modern commentators feel that one of the major concerns of
the monastic rules was to separate the monks and the nuns to protect celibacy, neither
monks or nuns are tempted by each other, with very few exceptions. The real struggle is
between monastics and lay people.(53)
Nagata Mizu additionally claims a practical reason for the two additional rules (#5, 6)
concerning sexual prohibition for bhik.su.niis. He notes that these rules prohibit bhik.su.niis
from physical contact with men at any time and in any situation because of the bhik.su.niis'
potential fertility, childbearing being contrary to monastic life.(54)
The Ssu fen lu does not elaborate on how the seventh paaraajika dharma
for bhik.su.niis came to be formulated.(55)
However, the Paali vinaya gives an historical account of how the rule was formed.
The bhik.su.nii Sundariinandaa was involved in sexual relations with the layman
Saa.lha, Migaara's grandson, and became pregnant. She was forced to leave the sa"ngha
after she could no longer conceal her condition. Her sister, Thullanandaa, concealed
Sundariinandaa's offense even though she knew that Sundariinandaa had committed a paaraajika
offense. So even though rule number seven of the paaraajika dharmas at first glance
seems to deal with the concealment of an offense, it also indicates a concern with sexual
matters between men and women.(56)
Although Gautama Buddha laid down the rules that bhik.su.niis should learn the dharma
from bhik.sus who were authorized by the Bhik.su sa"ngha,(57) he also established rule number eight to
protect bhik.su.niis from abuse by a man who was no longer a bhik.su. This
rule may be a relic of the early period of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha when some bhik.su.niis
were used by a bhik.su who had been expelled by the sa"ngha.(58) The additional rules for bhik.su.niis
in the paaraajika dharmas look varied, but the case histories establish them as
generally concerning sexual offenses. Rule number eight is one of the most important rules
of the monastic life for bhik.su.niis; however, violation of the rule is not an
offense until the third admonition. Chatsuman Kabilsingh comments on rule number eight:
It is interesting to note that the structure of paaraajika 8 stands out from the
rest. A bhik.su.nii is defeated only after the third admonition, the form resembles
that of sa.mghaava"se.sa more than paaraajika. Could it be possible
that it has been shifted from sa.mghaava"se.sa? If that was the case, then it
must have occurred at a very early period before the separation of the various sects, for
all of them share this rule.(59)
Nagata Mizu contends that if a bhik.su.nii is involved in sexual relations, she
is required to leave the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. Additionally, the result of the
offense can cause her pregnancy, and this can result in a serious external problem for the
Buddhist community as well as the individual. In contrast, if a bhik.su is involved
in sexual relations, the punishment of the offense could be inwardly limited only to the bhik.su.(60)
From a close examination of the comparative study of the paaraajika dharmas for bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus, we see that the four additional paaraajika dharmas for bhik.su.niis
actually deal with sexual matters. It seems that Gautama Buddha put great emphasis on
providing stronger guards for the life of chastity for bhik.su.niis than for bhik.sus,
and strong guards against sexual behavior for bhik.su.niis because of their
potential fertility. As Nagata Mizu asserts, the results of sexual offenses of bhik.su.niis
can be greatly different from those of bhik.sus. The result of the sexual offense
of a bhik.su.nii is not simply settled by only leaving the sa"ngha
herself, because of her motherhood and childbearing.
PART II
Sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas (Formal Meeting)
The second most serious group of monastic rules in the Praatimok.sa are the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas(Paali: sa"nghadisesa). The meaning of the term sa.mghaava"se.sa
is also controversial among scholars. Kabilsingh explains that "[i]n some of the
Sanskrit texts the word occurs in the form sa.mghaava"se.sa, sa"nghadise.sa
would thus be an old Maghadhi form of sa"nghavasesa, a later Sanskrit
rendering of the original sa"ghadisesa."(61) Horner notes:
Like the meaning of paaraajika, the meaning of sa"nghadisesa [Skt. sa.mghaava"se.sa]
is controversial. Again B. C. Law and I follow vinaya Texts in rendering sa"nghadisesa
as offenses (or rules or matters) which require a formal meeting of the Order [sa"ngha].(62)
Sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas translates into the Chinese as seng ts'an fa,
which means "remaining in the sa"ngha."(63) The Chinese Shih sung lu explains the term sa.mghaava"se.sa
as the offenses despite which one could still remain in the sa"ngha. When a bhik.su
[or bhik.su.nii] confesses to the sa"ngha his [or her] offense, he [or
she] can be expiated from the wrongdoing.(64) In
this category, we see that bhik.su.niis have four more rules than bhik.sus.
Even though there are four additional rules for bhik.su.niis in this category, the
punishment for violation of them shows a compassionate way for bhik.su.niis because
it requires three admonitions. As a result, the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis
provide more opportunities for bhik.su.niis for self-training in their alms life. Sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 2
Sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas (Formal Meeting)
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same Rules for Bhik.sus(65) |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(66) |
| 1 |
5 |
Not to undertake an act of a go-between for a man and a woman |
| 2 |
8 |
Not to accuse an innocent bhik.su.nii of a groundless paaraajika
offense |
| 3 |
9 |
Not to accuse an innocent bhik.su.nii of a groundless paaraajika
offense out of anger or hostility toward her |
| 4 |
|
Not to sue as an accuser for damages |
| 5 |
|
Not to ordain a thief |
| 6 |
|
Not to restore a suspended bhik.su.nii to the sa"ngha |
| 7 |
|
Not to go to villages alone, cross to the other side of a river alone, go
away for a night alone, or stay behind a group of bhik.su.niis alone |
| 8 |
|
Not to accept food or clothes from a man who is filled with desire |
| 9 |
|
Not to persuade other bhik.su.niis to accept food from a man who
is filled with desire |
| 10 |
10 |
Not to cause a schism in a harmonious sa"ngha in spite of
being admonished a third time |
| 11 |
11 |
Not to support a schismatic bhik.su.nii in spite of being
admonished a third time |
| 12 |
12 |
Not to ignore a third admonition to leave a village after bringing
corruption to a family or village |
| 13 |
13 |
Not to break the regulations of the sa"ngha or ignore a third
admonition due to malice |
| 14 |
|
Not to get along with a bhik.su.nii who has committed offenses and
conceal each other's offense in spite of being admonished a third time |
| 15 |
|
Not to encourage other bhik.su.niis to get along with a bhik.su.nii
who has committed an offense and conceal one another's offenses in spite of being
admonished a third time |
| 16 |
|
Not to say that you will repudiate the Buddha, Dharma and the sa"ngha
out of anger or displeasure in spite of being admonished a third time |
| 17 |
|
Not to fight with a bhik.su.nii and bear malice to the bhik.su.nii
in spite of being admonished a third time |
TABLE NO. 3
Sa.mghaava"se.sa Dharmas for bhik.sus
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.sus)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.sus |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.sus(67) |
| 1 |
Not to intentionally emit semen |
| 2 |
Not to engage with a woman in bodily contact or take her hand, take her
arm, touch her hair, touch one or another of her limbs |
| 3 |
Not to speak to a woman with wicked words concerned with unlawful sexual
intercourse |
| 4 |
Not to speak in front of women, in praise of sexual service of the body
with regard to himself |
| 6 |
Not to build a dwelling place in excessive measurements(68) without a donor |
| 7 |
Not to build a large residence with a donor on a site entailing harm (to
creatures) or with surroundings which are not conducive to roaming |
The seventeen rules for bhik.su.niis and thirteen rules for bhik.sus in
this category represent the second severe breach of the monastic discipline. Seven rules
(#1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13 for bhik.su.niis, #5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 for bhik.sus)
are common to bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus. Of the ten sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas which are different for bhik.su.niis and for bhik.sus, rule
number four for bhik.su.niis deals with behavior with lay people; rule five with
false ordination; rule six with restoring a suspended bhik.su.nii without
permission from the sa"ngha; rule seven is about those who go alone into the
village or cross the bank of the river, and spend a night alone; rules eight and nine are
related to safeguarding bhik.su.niis from the dangers of lustful men; rules
fourteen and fifteen forbid bhik.su.niis from concealing the offenses of others;
rule sixteen concerns the bhik.su.nii who shows disrespect to the Buddha, Dharma
and the sa"ngha; and rule seventeen deals with a quarrelsome bhik.su.nii.
Just as bhik.su.niis have rules which apply only to them in this category, bhik.sus
likewise have rules specific to their situations (Table No. 3). The six different rules
for bhik.sus in this category cover such matters: four rules (#1, 2, 3, 4) are
related to sex; and two (#6, 7) are concerned with the construction of a hut or a large
dwelling place. These rules, which are only for bhik.sus, also provide glimpses
into the lives of bhik.su.niis. For example, with regard to the two rules about
building dwelling place, Kabilsingh claims that, because these rules "are not shared
by the bhik.su.niis, it might be understood that usually the nuns are not
themselves in charge of construction."(69)
The first nine of the sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus
become offenses at once when a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su transgresses any of
these rules, whereas the final seven (#10-17) for bhik.su.niis and final four
(#10-13) for bhik.sus do not become offenses until a third admonition of bhik.su.niis
or bhik.sus is necessary. The offenses of the four additional rules (#14, 15, 16,
17) for bhik.su.niis in this category require three admonitions of the bhik.su.nii
involved.(70)
When a bhik.su commits any one of the sa.mghaava"se.sa offenses, he
is subjected to a period of parivaasa(71)
[Paali: parivaasa] for as many days as the offense is concealed. If a bhik.su
informs another bhik.su at once about his offense of the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharma, he is required to undergo only a period of the six nights of the maanatva(72) [Paali: maanatta] in the Bhik.su
sa"ngha. However, if a bhik.su conceals his offense, first he must go
through a period of the parivaasa for as many days as it is concealed, and then a
further period called maanatva must also be spent in the Bhik.su sa"ngha.(73)
In contrast, when a bhik.su.nii has violated one of the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas, she is required to undergo only the period of maanatva for a half
month in both Bhik.su and Bhik.su.nii Sa"nghas, no matter whether she
has concealed her offense for some period or not.(74)
bhik.su.niis are not required to do the parivaasa. However, bhik.su.niis
are subjected to a period of the maanatva in both sa"nghas for half a
month. She has to approach both Bhik.su and Bhik.su.nii Sa"nghas, and
beg for the period of the maanatva.(75)
The Paali Bhik.su.nii vinaya states that:
A nun having fallen into one or other of these shall spend a fortnight in maanatta
[Skt. maanatva] discipline before both Orders. If, when the nun has performed the maanatta
discipline, the Order of nuns should number twenty, then that nun may be rehabilitated.
But if the Order of nuns, numbering less than twenty even by one, should rehabilitate that
nun, that nun is not rehabilitated, and those nuns are blameworthy; this is the proper
course there.(76)
On the other hand, the Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu requires a larger sa"ngha
members stating that:
If a bhik.su.nii violates any one of the sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas,
she must perform a period of the maanatva for one half month in both sa"nghas.
When the bhik.su.nii has performed the maanatva discipline, she must ask for
expiation of her offense in the presence of both sa"nghas of the twenty bhik.sus
and twenty bhik.su.niis. If there is less than forty even by one, she cannot be
rehabilitated, and those bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis (in both sa"nghas)
are blameworthy (for not having a required number to rehabilitate her).(77)
In comparing the two versions above, we note that they disagree in the required numbers
for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus. The Paali vinaya requires only twenty bhik.su.niis
as a sufficient number for rehabilitation, but it does not specifically give the number
required for bhik.sus. However, the Chinese Ssu fen lu requires twenty bhik.sus
and twenty bhik.su.niis in each sa"ngha as a sufficient number for the
rehabilitation.(78) Perhaps during the long
history of translation of the vinaya, the additional sufficient numbers may have
been added to the Chinese Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu.
Taking a look at "performing the maanatva discipline before both sa"nghas
for bhik.su.niis," it might be thought that the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha
subordinated its position to the Bhik.su sa"ngha and that bhik.su.niis
are subjected to a heavier penalty than bhik.sus for an offense of the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas. However, Ian Astley argues:
Actually, although many parts of the vinaya reflect a very petty-minded way of
thinking which may be regarded as holding almost anything from monkeys to women in an
unfavorable light, the basic considerations behind this difference in the relative status
of the two orders should not be misconstrued. In those days (and this still applies to
much of present Indian society) a woman who had left the life of the household would
otherwise have been regarded more or less as a harlot and subjected to the appropriate
harassment. By being formally associated with the monks, the nuns were able to enjoy the
benefits of leaving the household life without incurring immediate harm. Whilst it is one
thing to abhor - as any civilized person must do - the attitudes and behavior towards
women which underlie the necessity for such protection, it is surely misplaced to
criticize the Buddha and his community for adopting this particular policy.(79)
I fully agree with Astley that the formal acts required for bhik.su.niis before
both sa"nghas, and some of the additional rules, were generated because of the
specific social and cultural context during the time of Gautama Buddha. In the vinaya
there are several examples of Brahmins who spoke of bhik.su.niis as "harlots
or whores." These stories provide a glimpse of bhik.su.niis in the midst of
the Brahmin social milieu during the time of Gautama Buddha. For example:
Now at that time several nuns, going to Saavatthii through the Kosalan districts,
having arrived at a certain village in the evening, having approached a certain Brahmin
family, asked for accommodation. Then that Brahmin woman spoke thus to these nuns:
"Wait, ladies, until the Brahmin comes." . . .
Then that Brahmin having come during the night, spoke thus to that Brahmin women:
"Who are these?"
"They are nuns, master."
Saying: "Throw out these shaven-headed strumpets," he threw them out from the
house.(80)
* * *
. . . . Then that man, defeated, looked down upon, criticized, spread it about, saying:
"These shaven-headed (women) are not (true) recluses, they are strumpets. How can
they have the store-room taken away from us?"(81)
* * *
. . . . Then that Brahmin . . . spread it about, saying:
"These shaven-headed strumpets are not true recluses. How can they let a pot fall on
my head? I will set fire to their dwelling," and having taken up a fire-brand, he
entered the dwelling.(82)
Within these social conditions, Gautama Buddha opened up new horizons for women by
founding the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. This social and spiritual advancement for
women was ahead of the times and, therefore, drew many objections from men, including bhik.sus.
He was probably well aware of the controversy that would be caused by the harassment of
his female disciples. In Buddhist history, the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha was founded
five years later than the Bhik.su sa"ngha.(83) In the early stage of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha, bhik.su.niis
learned all forms of disciplinary acts and various aspects of knowledge from bhik.sus.
The Paali Cullavagga (The Less or Lesser Division of the vinaya)(84) shows how the Bhik.su sa"ngha was
modeled on the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha.
Now at that time the Paa.timokkha was not recited to nuns. They told this matter
to the Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to recite the Paa.timokkha to the nuns." . . .(85)
* * *
The nuns did not know to recite the Paa.timokkha. They told this matter to the
Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'The Paa.timokkha should be recited thus.' "(86)
* * *
The nuns did not know how to confess offenses. They told this matter to the Lord. He
said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'An offense should be confessed thus.' "(87)
* * *
The nuns did not know how to acknowledge offenses. They told this matter to the Lord.
He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'An offense should be acknowledged thus.' "(88)
* * *
Nuns did not know (formal) acts should be carried out. They told this matter to the
Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'A (formal) act should be carried out thus.' "(89)
As I have discussed, the performance of the formal acts for bhik.su.niis before
both sa"nghas provided a close tie between the two sa"nghas. By
legitimately associating with the Bhik.su sa"ngha, the Bhik.su.nii
sa"ngha had benefits and protection from outside harm in ancient India. When we
especially consider the cultural context of ancient India, the formal acts before both sa"nghas
might have been necessary for the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. As I have already
mentioned, the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis (#14, 15, 16, 17) in this
category belong to the last eight rules which require three admonitions before punishment.
This requirement of three admonitions for the offenses of the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis,
I believe, provides more opportunities for bhik.su.niis to develop their religious
lives without overly strict punishment. These also encourage bhik.su.niis to expand
their self-cultivation with the three admonitions, adding a compassionately accommodating
limit to behavior.
PART III
Aniyata dharmas (Undetermined)
The third category of the rules for bhik.sus is the aniyata dharmas(Paali:
aniyataa) which do not exist in the Bhik.su.nii Praatimok.sa. Aniyata
has been defined as "[s]ince the nature of the offense is uncertain, this section of
the Paa.timokkha is called aniyata dharma, that is, 'to be decided.' "(90) Charles S. Prebish says that "[t]his
category of offenses is referred to as "undetermined offenses."(91) Aniyata dharmas translates into Chinese
as pu ting fa,(92) which means indefinite
or undetermined. In this category, the two rules for bhik.sus show an astonishing
degree of trust in women to testify against a bhik.su who has committed one of the aniyata
dharmas. Aniyata dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 4
Aniyata Dharmas for only bhik.sus (Undetermined)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.sus |
Summary of Rules(93) |
| 1 |
Not to sit down with a woman in a secret place, a concealed seat suitable
for having sexual relations with her |
| 2 |
Not to sit down with a woman in an open place or on a concealed seat
unsuitable for having sexual relations |
My discussion of these two rules for bhik.sus may seem irrelevant. However, they
contain a Buddhist view of women. As Prebish points out, "[t]he two [aniyata]
offenses in this category reflect an outstanding and somewhat surprising degree of trust
in the female lay follower."(94) If a bhik.su
has taken a seat together with a woman in a secret place which is convenient for sexual
relations or in an open place unsuitable for lustful desires, he may be charged with one
of the offenses of the paaraajika, sa.mghaava"se.sa or paayantika
dharmas. The punishment may vary from the paaraajika to the paayantika
according to the eyewitness testimony of a female lay follower, based on her personal
word.(95) It is noteworthy that the word of a
woman was held in such high regard, and certainly unusual given the general low status of
women at the time the rules were formulated. In the penalties for the offenses of the aniyata
dharmas for bhik.sus, these two rules put a considerable trust in women, even
though the aniyata dharmas are not applicable to bhik.su.niis. Horner notes:
These two Aniyata rules indicate the respect and deference that was, at that
time, paid to women. They were not scornfully brushed aside as idle gossips and frivolous
chatter-boxes, but their words were taken seriously.(96)
PART IV
Ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas (Forfeiture)
The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas(Paali: nissaggiya paacittiya) are
particularly concerned with conduct concerning material possessions. They follow the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas in the Bhik.su.nii Praatimok.sa, while they follow the aniyata
dharmas as the fourth category in the Bhik.su Praatimok.sa.
From internal evidence, paacittiya [Skt. paayantika ] is a (minor)
offense to be confessed, aapatti desetabbaa[Skt. aapatti desayitavya], a
statement common to all the Nissaggiyas. But etymologically the word paacittiya
has nothing to do with confession. I have therefore kept to the more literal translation,
and have rendered it "offense of expiation" throughout, and the two words nissaggiya
paacittiya as "offense of expiation involving forfeiture."(97)
The term ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas translates into the Chinese as she to
fa.(98) In the Chinese she means to
abandon, while the Chinese to means to fall. The Sanskrit term paayantika in
the Chinese refers to roasting, boiling and falling. If a bhik.su [or bhik.su.nii]
commits an offense of the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas, it is believed that he
[or she] will fall into hell and suffer by being boiled and roasted.(99) Even though there are the same numbers of the rules both for bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus in this category, some rules for bhik.sus do not allow them to
demand from bhik.su.niis feminine tasks which would interfere with the bhik.su.niis'
own religious pursuits. The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 5
Ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas (Forfeiture)
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same or Similar Rules for Bhik.sus(100) |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(101) |
| 1 |
1 |
Not to lay aside an extra robe more than ten days |
| 2 |
2 |
Not to spend over a night without the five robes(102) |
| 3 |
3 |
Not to lay aside robe material for more than one month |
| 4 |
6 |
Not to ask for a robe from an unrelated householder except at the right
time(103) |
| 5 |
7 |
Not to accept extra robes when the robes have been lost, stolen, burned
or washed away |
| 6 |
8 |
Not to ask for a better robe from a householder out of desire for a fine
robe |
| 7 |
9 |
Not to ask for one fine robe instead of two robes offered by two
householders |
| 8 |
10 |
Not to request from a steward more than six times in order to obtain a
robe |
| 9 |
18 |
Not to accept or cause to be picked up gold and silver for bhik.su.niis
own use |
| 10 |
19 |
Not to engage in buying and selling |
| 11 |
20 |
Not to engage in activities in various kinds of buying and selling |
| 12 |
22 |
Not to get a new bowl when an old bowl has been repaired in less than
five places |
| 13 |
23 |
Not to beg yarn to make a robe woven by an unrelated weaver |
| 14 |
24 |
Not to ask a weaver to make a well-woven robe |
| 15 |
25 |
Not to take back or cause to snatch away a robe given to another out of
anger, malice, or ill-temper |
| 16 |
26 |
Not to lay aside medicine for more than seven days |
| 17 |
28 |
Not to accept a special robe ten days before the ka.thina(104) full moon |
| 18 |
30 |
Not to appropriate to yourself benefits belonging to the sa"ngha |
| 19 |
|
Not to ask for this, and then ask for that |
| 20 |
|
Not to spend the observance hall fund on another fund |
| 21 |
|
Not to spend the food fund on the robe fund |
| 22 |
|
Not to spend the bed fund on the robe fund |
| 23 |
|
Not to spend the housing fund of the sa"ngha on the robe fund |
| 24 |
21 |
Not to store extra bowls |
| 25 |
|
Not to store fine appliances |
| 26 |
|
Not to break a promise to lend periodical cloth to another bhik.su.nii |
| 27 |
|
Not to accept robe material at the wrong time for making of the robe at
the right time |
| 28 |
|
Not to take back a robe already exchanged for another, out of anger |
| 29 |
|
Not to ask for an expensive heavy robe(105) |
| 30 |
|
Not to ask for an expensive light and thin robe |
The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas contain thirty rules for both bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus. However, the contents of some rules differ. Nineteen rules for bhik.su.niis
have been taken from the rules for bhik.sus, while the remaining eleven rules for bhik.su.niis
are different from those for bhik.sus. The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas
for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus cover such topics as robes, bowls, medicine,
money, funds, etc. Violation of any of the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas requires
a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su to abandon those robes or bowls, etc., and then
to formally confess the offense in the presence of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha or
the Bhik.su sa"ngha, providing that the sa"ngha not be less than
five members.(106) Therefore, the
transgression of the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas does not require any
punishment, per se, only confession.(107)
The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis are comprised of
seventeen rules (#1-8, 13-15, 17, 26-30) dealing with robes; three (#9, 10, 11) with gold
and silver, and buying and selling; three (#12, 24, 25) with bowls; one (#16) with
medicine; two (#18, 19) with appropriating sa"ngha property and asking for
food; and four (#20, 21, 22, 23) with misuse of funds. In contrast, the ni.hsargika-paayantika
dharmas for bhik.sus which are different from those for bhik.su.niis
number eleven, as follows.
TABLE NO. 6
Ni.hsargika-paayantika Dharmas for bhik.sus
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.sus)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.sus |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.sus(108) |
| 4 |
Not to accept a robe from an unrelated bhik.su.nii unless it is in
exchange |
| 5 |
Not to call upon an unrelated bhik.su.nii for an old robe to be
washed, dyed, or beaten |
| 11 |
Not to have a new rug made of silk |
| 12 |
Not to have a new rug made of pure black sheep's wool |
| 13 |
Not to have a new rug made of pure white sheep's wool |
| 14 |
Not to have another new rug within six years |
| 15 |
Not to make a new sitting rug without using pieces from the old sitting
rug to disfigure the new rug on all sides |
| 16 |
Not to carry sheep's wool on the road more than three yojanas(109) |
| 17 |
Not to call upon an unrelated bhik.su.nii for sheep's wool to be
washed, dyed, or combed |
| 27 |
Not to get a rain-cloth robe earlier than a month (from the hot season),
or wear it earlier than half a month (from the hot season) |
| 29 |
Bhik.sus may stay away one or another robe of the three robes for
six nights at the most in fearful, dangerous, or doubtful situations |
Six of the rules for bhik.sus above (#11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16) deal with the use
and making of various types of rugs; two of the rules (#27, 29) deal with robes. Three
rules (#4, 5, 17) actually prevent bhik.sus from taking advantage of bhik.su.niis.
This is clearly shown in rule number seventeen for bhik.sus, which is illustrated
in the following story given in the Bhik.su-vibha.ngha:
At that time the group of six monks had sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by
nuns. The nuns, through washing, dyeing, combing the sheep's wool, neglected the
exposition, the interrogation, the higher morality, the higher thought, the higher
insight. . . .
"Gotamii, I hope that the nuns are zealous, ardent,(with) a self that is
striving?"
"Where, lord, is there zeal in the nuns? The masters, the group of six monks, have
sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by nuns. The nuns . . . neglect the exposition,
the interrogation, the higher morality, the higher thought, the higher insight." . .
.
"Foolish men, those who are not relations do not know what is suitable or what is
unsuitable, or what is pleasant or what is unpleasant to those who are not relations. Thus
you, foolish men, will have sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by nuns who are not
relations? It is not, foolish men, for pleasing those who are not (yet) pleased. . . . And
thus, monks, this rule of training should be set forth."(110)
Horner also points out:
Besides the giving of robes, the washing of robes also became subject to various
regulations. It was said that robes were not to be washed (by the almswomen [bhik.su.niis]
for the almsmen [bhik.sus]) unless they were related; old garments were not to be
washed, dyed or beaten by the almswomen for the almsmen, unless they were related.(111)
In comparing the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus,
we see that some rules for bhik.sus forbid them from taking advantage of bhik.su.niis.
Thus freed from abuse, bhik.su.niis can put more attention into their spiritual
practice. Gross notes:
Furthermore, the monastic code protected nuns from demanding monks who might ask nuns
to do housework for the monks or to give them food and clothing - feminine tasks in the
renounced world. Such rulings are remarkably considerate and recognize that women renounce
the world for their own religious pursuits, which should not be undermined by the demands
of men used to female service.(112)
PART V
Paayantika dharmas (Expiation)
The paayantika or patayantika dharmas translates into the Chinese tan
t'i fa,(113) or tan to fa.(114) They are even less severe than the
previous categories for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, and cover a wide a range
of topics. There are one hundred seventy-eight rules for bhik.su.niis and ninety
rules for bhik.sus in this particular category. Horner explains:
A curious feature of the Paacittiyas is that the Old Commentary on the rules
nowhere explains what is meant by paacittiya, the offense which gives its name to
this whole section. It is from the phrase aapatti desetabbaa, occurring in the Vibha"nga
on each Nissaggiya, that we infer that paacittiya is an offense to be
confessed; and even as forfeiture and confession are to be made to an Order or to a group
or to an individual, so we may conclude that the same holds good when the offense is one
whose penalty is merely that of expiation, of confession unaccompanied by forfeiture.(115)
While paayantika [Paali: paacittiya] is a transgression which causes the
breaking down of ku"sala-karma (good acts), nevertheless, it is an aapatti
(offense), which one merely needs to be mindful of.(116) This category includes a great difference in the number of rules for bhik.su.niis
from those for bhik.sus. The purpose of these rules, which is mainly based on the
historical realities of the daily life of bhik.su.niis, is to encourage bhik.su.niis
to be mindful of speech, behavior, and the regulations of the sa"ngha, etc.
Wijayaratna points out "[t]he paacittiyas [Skt. paayantikas] deal with
offenses requiring only confession."(117)
When a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su violates one of the paayantika dharmas,
the offender is required to confess to another bhik.su.nii or bhik.su, or a
group or the sa"ngha.(118)
paayantika dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 7
Paayantika dharmas (Expiation)
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same Or Similar Rules for Bhik.sus(119) |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(120) |
| 1 |
1 |
Not to speak a conscious lie |
| 2 |
2 |
Not to use insulting speech |
| 3 |
3 |
Not to alienate members of the sa"ngha |
| 4 |
4 |
Not to stay with a man in a room for a night |
| 5 |
5 |
Not to stay with a woman in a room for more than two or three nights |
| 6 |
6 |
Not to recite the suutras with one who is not ordained(121) |
| 7 |
7 |
Not to speak of a grave offense of a bhik.su.nii to an unordained
person |
| 8 |
8 |
Not to lie about her superhuman faculties to an unordained person in
begging for alms food |
| 9 |
9 |
Not to teach more than five or six sentences of Dharma to a man
unless there is a wise woman also present |
| 10 |
10 |
Not to dig the ground |
| 11 |
11 |
Not to cut down trees |
| 12 |
12 |
Not to vex or abuse the sa"ngha |
| 13 |
13 |
Not to slander or rebuke a bhik.su.nii who is assigned to a
particular job in the sa"ngha |
| 14 |
14 |
Not to spread out a cushion, a couch, a chair or a pillow in an open
place belonging to the sa"ngha |
| 15 |
15 |
Not to spread out a cushion, a couch, a chair or a pillow in a private
place belonging to the sa"ngha |
| 16 |
16 |
Not to lie down in a sleeping place or dwelling place belonging to a bhik.su.nii |
| 17 |
17 |
Not to throw out or cause a bhik.su.nii to be thrown out of a
dwelling place in the sa"ngha |
| 18 |
18 |
Not to sit down or lie down on a couch or a chair with weak legs |
| 19 |
19 |
Not to use water that might have living things in it |
| 20 |
20 |
Not to cover the roof of a large dwelling place with more than two or
three layers |
| 21 |
31 |
Not to eat alms food at a public rest house more than once, except in
case of illness |
| 22 |
33 |
Not to eat a group meal, except at a right time(122) |
| 23 |
34 |
Not to accept more than three bowls of alms food |
| 24 |
37 |
Not to eat a meal at the wrong time(123) |
| 25 |
38 |
Not to eat a meal that has been laid aside |
| 26 |
39 |
Not to put food that is not given into the mouth, except for water or a
tooth pick |
| 27 |
42 |
Not to break a promise of food to one who is asking for alms food |
| 28 |
43 |
Not to sit down in a lay person's house with a wife and husband after
alms food |
| 29 |
44 |
Not to sit down in a private place with a couple |
| 30 |
45 |
Not to sit down in a private place with a man |
| 31 |
46 |
Not to break a promise to share alms (food) with a bhik.su.nii who
accompanies one an alms tour |
| 32 |
47 |
Not to accept medicines for longer than four months |
| 33 |
48 |
Not to go to see an army fighting unless there is sufficient reason for
it |
| 34 |
49 |
Not to stay with the army for more than three nights |
| 35 |
50 |
Not to stay amongst an army to enjoy the battle |
| 36 |
51 |
Not to drink alcohol |
| 37 |
52 |
Not to play in the water |
| 38 |
53 |
Not to make a bhik.su.nii laugh by tickling with the fingers |
| 39 |
54 |
Not to ignore another bhik.su.nii's admonition |
| 40 |
55 |
Not to frighten or cause a bhik.su.nii to be frightened |
| 41 |
56 |
Not to bathe more than half monthly, except at a right time(124) |
| 42 |
57 |
Not to make a fire in an open place |
| 43 |
58 |
Not to hide or cause to be hidden a bowl or a robe belonging to a bhik.su.nii,
even for fun |
| 44 |
59 |
Not to take back a robe given to a bhik.su.nii without asking her
for permission |
| 45 |
60 |
Not to wear a new robe with its original color unless the new robe is
discolored with a mixture of the three colors: blue, black and dark purple(125) |
| 46 |
61 |
Not to intentionally deprive any living thing of life |
| 47 |
62 |
Not to intentionally drink water which contains living things |
| 48 |
63 |
Not to intentionally give a cause for remorse to a bhik.su.nii,
even for a moment |
| 49 |
65 |
Not to intentionally conceal a grave offense committed habitually by a bhik.su.nii |
| 50 |
66 |
Not to cause quarreling, bickering, or fighting |
| 51 |
67 |
Not to intentionally go with a thief along the same road |
| 52 |
68 |
Not to ignore the admonition of a bhik.su.nii because of her own
wrong view |
| 53 |
69 |
Not to eat, talk, or lie down with a bhik.su.nii who is suspended
by the sa"ngha |
| 54 |
70 |
Not to protect a "siik.samaa.na(126) (probationer) who is suspended by the sa"ngha |
| 55 |
71 |
Not to ignore an experienced bhik.su.nii's advice about
learning the rules for training |
| 56 |
72 |
Not to disparage the rules for training |
| 57 |
73 |
Listen carefully to the recitation of the Praatimok.sa |
| 58 |
74 |
Not to engage in criticism after consenting to a legitimate act |
| 59 |
75 |
Not to leave the seat without asking a competent bhik.su.nii for
permission when the sa"ngha is engaged in pious philosophical discussion |
| 60 |
76 |
Not to criticize another's decision after granting someone the power to
make a decision |
| 61 |
77 |
Not to overhear while bhik.su.niis are quarreling, disputing, or
engaging in contention |
| 62 |
78 |
Not to hit a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure |
| 63 |
79 |
Not to raise a hand at a bhik.su.nii because of anger or
displeasure |
| 64 |
80 |
Not to accuse a bhik.su.nii of a groundless sa.mghaava"se.sa
offense |
| 65 |
81 |
Not to cross the threshold, or vicinity of the threshold, of the palace
in the early morning without permission of a competent bhik.su.nii |
| 66 |
82 |
Not to pick up a jewel with the bhik.su.nii's own hands, or even
ask others to do it |
| 67 |
83 |
Not to enter a village at the wrong time without asking a competent bhik.su.nii
for permission, except for sufficient reasons |
| 68 |
84 |
Not to make the legs of a chair larger than the eight finger breadth |
| 69 |
85 |
Not to sit down or lie down on a chair or couch covered with cotton |
| 70 |
|
Not to eat garlic |
| 71 |
|
Not to cut the hair of the private parts of the body |
| 72 |
|
Not to put a finger into the vagina more than the length of two finger
joints when you take a douche |
| 73 |
|
Not to make a male sexual organ out of any material |
| 74 |
|
Not to slap each other on the private parts |
| 75 |
|
Not to wait on a bhik.su with drinking water or a fan while he is
eating a meal |
| 76 |
|
Not to ask lay people for grains |
| 77 |
|
Not to throw out excrement or urine on the living grass |
| 78 |
|
Not to throw out excrement or urine over a wall or a fence |
| 79 |
|
Not to go to see dancing, singing, or playing music |
| 80 |
|
Not to stand or talk with a man in a secluded place |
| 81 |
|
Not to enter into a secluded place with a man |
| 82 |
|
Not to whisper into a man's ear in a secluded place |
| 83 |
|
Not to leave a lay person's house without asking the owner for permission |
| 84 |
|
Not to sit down in a lay person's house without asking the owner for
permission |
| 85 |
|
Not to lie down on a seat in a lay person's house without asking the
owner for permission |
| 86 |
|
Not to enter into a dark room with a man |
| 87 |
|
Not to deliver the teacher's message misleadingly |
| 88 |
|
Not to curse herself or others |
| 89 |
|
Not to beat the chest while weeping after quarreling |
| 90 |
|
Not to share a bed with anybody, except in case of illness |
| 91 |
|
Not to share a blanket |
| 92 |
|
Not to intentionally cause discomfort to a bhik.su.nii by asking a
tricky question |
| 93 |
|
Not to neglect a sick bhik.su.nii who has been living together |
| 94 |
|
Not to drive out a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure |
| 95 |
|
Not to walk on alms tour during the rainy season retreat(127) |
| 96 |
|
Not to stay at the place of retreat after having the rainy season retreat |
| 97 |
|
Not to walk on borderlines which are dangerous and frightening |
| 98 |
|
Not to walk in dangerous and frightening regions even within the
borderline |
| 99 |
|
Not to take company in lay people or their sons |
| 100 |
|
Not to go to see a king's pleasure house, an art gallery, a park, or a
lotus pond |
| 101 |
|
Not to bathe naked at the river or lake |
| 102 |
similar to 89 |
Not to make bathing clothes that are not of a proper measure(128) |
| 103 |
|
Not to break a promise to sew a bhik.su.nii's robe, or at least
make an effort to do it |
| 104 |
|
Not to let five days pass without looking after the outer robe |
| 105 |
|
Not to individually appropriate benefits which belong to the sa"ngha |
| 106 |
|
Not to put on a bhik.su.nii's robe without asking her for
permission |
| 107 |
|
Not to give the bhik.su.nii's robes to a lay person, a wanderer,
or a female wanderer |
| 108 |
|
Not to hold back the sa"ngha from making a division of robe
materials when it is legally allowed to do so |
| 109 |
|
Not to hold back a legally valid removal of the ka.thina from the
sa"ngha |
| 110 |
|
Not to hold back a legally valid removal of the ka.thina from a bhik.su.nii |
| 111 |
|
Promote peace between two fighting bhik.su.niis |
| 112 |
|
Not to give food to a lay person or a wanderer with bhik.su.niis own
hands |
| 113 |
|
Not to work for lay people like a house wife |
| 114 |
|
Not to spin yarn |
| 115 |
|
Not to sit down or lie down on lay people's seats |
| 116 |
|
Not to leave a lay person's house without asking the owner for permission
after staying over a night |
| 117 |
|
Not to learn and recite an incantation to householders |
| 118 |
|
Not to teach an incantation to householders |
| 119 |
|
Not to ordain a pregnant woman |
| 120 |
|
Not to ordain a woman who has left her baby at home |
| 121 |
65 |
Not to ordain a woman who is not twenty years old |
| 122 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na who has not trained for two
years even if she is twenty years old |
| 123 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na who has not trained for two
years in the six rules(129) even if
she is twenty years old |
| 124 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na who has trained for two years
in the six rules, but who is not agreed upon by the sa"ngha |
| 125 |
|
Not to ordain a married woman who is less than twelve years old |
| 126 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na married for full twelve years
and who has trained for two years in the six rules, but who is not agreed upon by the sa"ngha |
| 127 |
|
Not to ordain a lewd woman |
| 128 |
|
Be responsible for the disciples for two years as a preceptor while they
are training |
| 129 |
|
Learn from the preceptor for two years as an ordained bhik.su.nii |
| 130 |
|
Not to become a preceptor without authorization by the sa"ngha |
| 131 |
|
Not to become a preceptor if she has not been a bhik.su.nii for
twelve years |
| 132 |
|
Not to become a preceptor, even if she has been a bhik.su.nii for
twelve years, if she is not approved by the sa"ngha |
| 133 |
|
Not to complain when she is not approved by the sa"ngha to
become a preceptor |
| 134 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na without the consent of her
parents and husband |
| 135 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na who is grieving over love |
| 136 |
|
Not to break the promise to ordain a "siik.samaa.na after
training her to be ordained |
| 137 |
|
Not to promise to ordain a "siik.samaa.na after accepting
fabric for a robe |
| 138 |
|
Not to ordain two "siik.samaa.nas in the same year as a
preceptor |
| 139 |
|
Not to let a day pass to be approved by the Bhik.su Sa"ngha
after ordination of bhik.su.niis |
| 140 |
|
Not to miss the exhortation or the preaching of Dharma from the Bhik.su
Sa"ngha except in case of illness |
| 141 |
|
Not to miss Observance Day(130)
and exhortation in every half month |
| 142 |
|
After the rainy season retreat, bhik.su.niis should participate in
the special meeting of both sa"nghas to discuss these three matters: what was
seen, heard, or suspected |
| 143 |
|
Not to spend the rainy season retreat at a residence where there are no
signs of bhik.sus |
| 144 |
|
Not to enter a bhik.su monastery without asking bhik.sus
for permission |
| 145 |
|
Not to revile or abuse a bhik.su |
| 146 |
|
Not to revile a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure |
| 147 |
|
Not to let a man squeeze an ulcer |
| 148 |
|
Not to eat again after eating |
| 149 |
|
Not to be jealous of lay followers |
| 150 |
|
Not to spray perfume on the body |
| 151 |
|
Not to rub with perilla oil |
| 152 |
|
Not to be rubbed or massaged by a bhik.su.nii with perilla oil |
| 153 |
|
Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a "siik.samaa.na |
| 154 |
|
Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a "sraama.nerii(131) (female novice) |
| 155 |
|
Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a woman |
| 156 |
|
Not to wear a petticoat |
| 157 |
|
Not to have women's ornaments |
| 158 |
|
Not to wear a sunshade or sandals, except in case of illness |
| 159 |
|
Not to go in a vehicle, except in case of illness |
| 160 |
|
Not to enter a village without wearing a vest |
| 161 |
|
Not to enter a lay person's house without invitation |
| 162 |
|
Not to leave the monastery after sunset, leaving the door open wide
without telling a bhik.su.nii |
| 163 |
|
Not to leave the monastery after sunset, leaving the door open wide
without telling anyone |
| 164 |
|
Observe the rainy season retreats which come twice a year, except in case
of illness |
| 165 |
|
Not to ordain an idiot(132)
|
| 166 |
|
Not to ordain a hermaphrodite |
| 167 |
|
Not to ordain a woman who does not have two distinct exits for bodily
waste |
| 168 |
|
Not to ordain a woman who is a debtor or has serious illness |
| 169 |
|
Not to live with worldly knowledge |
| 170 |
|
Not to teach worldly knowledge to lay people |
| 171 |
|
Not to stay at the monastery after getting driven out by the sa"ngha |
| 172 |
|
Not to suddenly ask a question to a bhik.su without his permission |
| 173 |
|
Not to disturb a bhik.su.nii who has lived at the monastery
previously |
| 174 |
|
Not to build a bhik.su.nii's pagoda at the bhik.su
monastery |
| 175 |
|
Greet respectfully and do proper homage to a bhik.su ordained that
very day even though a bhik.su.nii has been ordained for a hundred years |
| 176 |
|
Not to prance around with a haughty attitude |
| 177 |
|
Not to wear ornaments like a lady |
| 178 |
|
Not to let a female wanderer rub or spray the body with perfume |
As we see in the table number seven, seventy-one rules for bhik.su.niis are
shared with bhik.sus. The rules in this category are extremely divergent in their
contents and may appear somewhat arbitrary; however; an examination of the contents of the
rules yields several major groups. In order to closely examine the wide range of the rules
embracing various aspects of bhik.su.niis' lives, the paayantika dharmas for
bhik.su.niis may roughly be classified as pertaining to the following groups:
TABLE NO. 8
An Overview of the Paayantika Dharmas(133)
| Classification of Offense |
Numbers of Rules Concerning this
Category of Offense |
Total of Rules Concerning this Category |
Rules for Bhik.suniis Only |
| Ordination |
119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,
127,134,135,165,166,167, 168 |
15 |
14 |
| Clothes |
44,45,102,103,104,105,
106,107, 108,109,110,114, 156,160 |
14 |
12 |
| Ornament and skin care |
71,150,151,152,153,154,
155,157,158,177,178 |
11 |
11 |
| Qualifications and responsibilities of a preceptor |
128,130,131,132,133,136,137,138 |
9 |
9 |
| Actions around men |
9,30,80,81,82,86,147 |
7 |
6 |
| Playful conduct |
37,38,43,48,73,74,77,78,79 |
9 |
6 |
| Public conduct |
83,84,85,99,161,176 |
6 |
6 |
| Exhortation on Observance Day and the rainy season retreat |
140,141,142,143,164 |
5 |
5 |
| Travel |
51,67,95,96,97,98,159 |
7 |
5 |
| Etiquette with bhik.sus |
75,144,145,172 |
4 |
4 |
| Food |
21,22,23,24,25,26,
27,31,76,112,148 |
11 |
3 |
| Passionate quarreling |
17,40,61,62,63,64,94,146 |
8 |
2 |
| Cursing |
88,89 |
2 |
2 |
| Sharing a bed or blanket |
90,91 |
2 |
| Bathing |
41,72,101 |
3 |
| Incantation |
117,118 |
2 |
| Worldly knowledge |
169,170 |
2 |
| Closing the gate of the monastery |
162,163 |
2 |
| Dispute or discord |
1,2,3,7,12,13,39,50,111 |
9 |
| Sleeping in the same room with lay people |
4,5,116 |
3 |
| Dwelling place and lodging |
10,11,16,19,20,173 |
6 |
| Etiquette in home of married couple |
28,29,161 |
3 |
| Etiquette for asking questions |
92 |
1 |
| Mindful conveying of messages |
87 |
1 |
| Caring for a sick bhik.su.nii |
93 |
1 |
| Transgression of the regulations of the community |
59,60,171 |
3 |
| Visiting the palace |
65,100 |
2 |
| Garlic |
70 |
1 |
| Working for lay people |
113 |
1 |
| Envy |
149 |
1 |
| Education by the preceptor |
129 |
1 |
| Usage of a bed or a chair |
14,15,115 |
3 |
| Usage of a couch or a mattress |
18,68,69 |
3 |
| Visiting armed forces |
33,34,35 |
3 |
| Alcohol consumption |
36 |
1 |
| Fire building |
42 |
1 |
| Harming of any organisms |
46,47 |
2 |
| Concealing of another's offense |
49 |
1 |
| False opinion |
52,53,54,55,56,57,58 |
7 |
| Handling of jewelry |
66 |
1 |
| Making false claims |
8 |
1 |
| Recitation of suutras with lay people |
6 |
1 |
| Medicine |
32 |
1 |
(I did not include in the above classification rules 139, 174 and 175 because they will
be discussed in detail later.)
An overview of the paayantika dharmas reveals that the additional rules for bhik.su.niis
concern ordination, clothes, ornament and skin care, the qualifications and
responsibilities of a preceptor, actions around men, playfulness and public conduct,
exhortation on Observance Day and the rainy season retreat, traveling and etiquette with bhik.sus,
etc. Nagata Mizu notes that many of the additional rules for bhik.su.niis in this
category are historically related to bhik.su.niis' dwelling places during the time
of Gautama Buddha. At that time, bhik.su.niis lived mainly in towns or villages,
while bhik.sus could live either in towns or forests.(134) After a young bhik.su.nii was seduced by a man, in the Paali Cullavagga
(The Less or Lesser Division of the vinaya), Gautama Buddha forbade bhik.su.niis
to live in forests:
Now at that time nuns were staying in a forest; men of abandoned life seduced them.
They told this matter to the Lord. He said:
"Monks, nuns should not stay in a forest. Whoever should stay (in one) there is an
offense of wrongdoing."(135)
Susan Murcott tells another story:
One of the many men who desired Uppalavanna was a cousin of hers, a young man
Ananda.(He should not be confused with Gautama's cousin and attendant by the same name.)
Ananda did not want Uppalavanna to renounce the world. Sometime during the first years
following Uppalavanna's ordination, Ananda found out that she lived alone in a hut in
Andhavana. One day while she was out, Ananda hid himself under her bed. When she returned
and lay down on her bed, he suddenly jumped out and raped her. . . . Because of this
incident, Buddhist nuns from that time to the present have been forbidden to go out alone
or to live as hermits in the woods.(136)
* * *
Later, rules prohibiting nuns' independent wandering were formulated. However, it was
more usual for nuns (and, for that matter, monks) to form into communities in or on the
outskirts of villages.(137)
* * *
The stories given in the Bhik.su.nii-vibha"nga show how these bhik.su.niis
were ill-treated and became objects of violence. They, therefore, were prohibited to stay
in the forest or to spend the rain-retreat alone where there was no Bhikkhu
sa"ngha.(138)
There are several stories about men who seduced or raped bhik.su.niis in the vinaya.
Stories about male violence against bhik.su.niis happened during the time of
Gautama Buddha.
. . . . Now at that time several monks and nuns came to be going along the high-road
from Saaketa to Saavatthii. Then these nuns spoke thus to these monks:
"We will go along with the masters."
"Sisters, it is not allowable, having arranged together with a nun, to go along the
same high-road. Either you go first, or we will go (first)."
"Honored sirs, the masters are the highest men, so let the masters go first."
Then as those nuns were going last thieves robbed them on the way and assaulted [raped]
them.(139)
* * *
. . . . Then as those nuns were crossing over last thieves robbed them and assaulted
[raped] them.(140)
* * *
. . . . Then these nuns, having approached a boatman, spoke thus:
"Please, sir, take us across."
Saying, "I am not able, ladies, to take both across at once."
He made one cross alone with him; one who was across seduced the one who was across, one
who was not across seduced the one who was not across.(141)
* * *
At that time several nuns were going along high-road to Saavatthii through the country
of Kosala. A certain nun there, wanting to relieve herself, having stayed behind alone,
went on afterwards. People, having seen that nun, seduced her.(142)
Gross explains:
Fears that women renunciates would be vulnerable to male violence were realistic.
Stories about male violence against nuns do occur, as do regulations designed to prevent
it. These regulations usually restrict women from more solitary travel and practices, just
as today we often counter male violence against women by encouraging women not to be in
dangerous places at unseemly hours.(143)
By settling the community of bhik.su.niis in towns or villages, bhik.su.niis
might be exposed to people who could find fault with them. According to the vinaya,
lay people and non-Buddhists were always free to criticize bad conduct of bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus. Accusations and gossip of people towards bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus
abound in the vinaya. As I showed in some examples above, harsher opprobrium was
directed toward bhik.su.niis than toward bhik.sus. When a bhik.su.nii
did something wrong, people frequently reproved bhik.su.niis as "shaven-headed
strumpets or whores." In contrast, when a bhik.su did something wrong, people
never spoke in derogatory terms of him as "shaven-headed . . . ," so far as I
have been able to discover. In the Chinese Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu many times people
insulted bhik.su.niis as "prostitutes or thieves."(144) Comparison of the criticisms of bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus suggests that people in ancient Indian society were more wrathful
toward the wrongdoings of bhik.su.niis than those of bhik.sus. It also
suggests that this was a reason to generate more rules for bhik.su.niis than bhik.sus
in this category. People in society were reluctant to allow women to break away from
household life and free them to go into alms life. Many rules for bhik.su.niis in
this category were generated because of bhik.su.niis living in this kind of
situation.
Classification of the Bhik.su.nii paayantika dharmas(Table No. 8) shows that
there are an outstanding numbers of rules about the ordination of women. No other topic is
given as much attention in the Bhik.su.nii-vibha"nga. Horner notes:
A great number of women are traditionally held to have flocked to the Order of nuns. It
is conceivable that they were generally regarded as of poorer quality than the monks, and
that therefore there had to be a severer testing in order to weed out those who had
entered without having a real vocation.(145)
In the rules concerning the ordination of women, rules 122 and 123 particularly require
women to train for two years(146)
under six rules. Nagata Mizu says that since a "siik.samaa.na (probationer) is
required to train for two years under the six rules and there are stricter rules for the
ordination of women, it suggests that bhik.su.niis had more difficulty in alms life
than bhik.sus.(147) However,
Horner explains:
One of the benefits of the two years' training was that it precluded the admission of
women who came seeking the shelter of the Order simply as a refuge from the pressure of
disagreeable circumstances; perhaps seeking it in a spasm of provocation or fear. It would
often have been by coincidence only that they were ascetics by nature: in many cases they
might have been quite unfitted to lead a monastic life.(148)
I also personally have lived the bhik.su.nii's life and think that the
requirement of training for two years under the six rules for a "siik.samaa.na
is related to the special circumstances and education of women. For example, when a woman
enters a temple to became a probationer, she may not know whether she is pregnant. She may
give birth almost a year after entering a temple. This happened during the time of Gautama
Buddha, as related in the Cullavagga:
Now at that time a certain woman had gone forth among the nuns when she was already
pregnant, and after she had gone forth she was delivered of a child.(149)
Rules 119 and 120 of the Bhik.su.nii paayantika Dharmas tell how difficult is to
lead the alms life as a bhik.su.nii with her child:
Now at that time nuns ordained a pregnant woman. She walked for alms. People spoke
thus:
"Give alms (food) to the lady, the lady is heavy with child."(150)
* * *
Now at that time nuns ordained a woman giving suck [to her baby]. She walked for alms.
People spoke thus:
"Give alms (food) to the lady, the lady has a companion."(151)
Lekshe Tsomo explains the training of a "siik.samaa.na for two years under
the six rules:
We should understand the history and reasoning behind this "siik.samaa.na
ordination. At the time of the Buddha, some young nuns left the household life to enter
monastic life and immediately took bhik.su.nii precepts. It happened that some of
them were pregnant before they took bhik.su.nii precepts. Although their conduct
was pure after they entered the nun's life, they became noticeably pregnant after taking
vows. This led to misunderstandings by the lay community, as it certainly was not
appropriate for a celibate bhik.su.nii to be pregnant. Therefore, the Buddha
prescribed an ample two-year waiting period for nuns to avoid such misunderstandings.
Instituting the "siik.samaa.na ordination was not a discriminatory move but
simply a matter of practicality.(152)
Ji-kwan Lee explicitly insists that the purpose of training for two years under the six
rules for a "siik.samaa.na is to test the possibility of pregnancy and the
ability for being a bhik.su.nii. It is also possible that Gautama Buddha's main
purpose in training of a "siik.samaa.na for two years under the six rules was
to raise the status of women through intensive education before ordination. We also should
consider that in the social environment of ancient India women received little or no
education. For example, the Bhik.su.nii paacittiya [Skt. paayantika] LXVI in
the Paali vinaya shows:
Now at that time nuns ordained a girl married for full twelve years (but) who had not
trained for two years in the six rules. These were ignorant, inexperienced, they did not
know what was allowable or what was not allowable. . . .
Whatever nun should ordain a girl married for full twelve years (but) who has not trained
for two years in the six rules, there is an offense of expiation.(153)
When we consider the lower status and the poorer education of women in those days, it
was a practical way for female novices to spend two years in a novitiate leading to full
ordination.
The second largest grouping of rules in the Bhik.su.nii paayantika Dharmas
concerns such topics as clothes, ornaments and skin care. The rules in these groups mostly
deal with specific matters of female concern and perhaps this is why the same rules did
not have to be instituted for bhik.sus. Some of the rules in these groups proscribe
minor matters special to women, for example, spinning yarn, or wearing a petticoat or a
vest.
A third large group of additional rules for bhik.su.niis concerns the
qualifications and duties of the preceptor, who must take full responsibility for her
disciples. Traditionally, in the Buddhist sa"ngha, every novice and
probationer depends on the preceptor for her or his education. Therefore, the preceptor's
personal qualifications and responsibilities are extremely important in the ordination of
women and men. The preceptor-disciple relationship is that the preceptor should teach her
or his disciple every aspect of what she needs to know. These responsibilities and duties
of a preceptor are equally necessary for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus.
. . . [T]he almswomen [bhik.su.niis] seeking initiation should come to an
instructor [preceptor]; secondly, that the instructor should not be unlearned or
incompetent, but someone who had been properly appointed. The notion underlying these
rulings appears to have been twofold. First, that a probationer might receive useful help
from a well-qualified women during her year's noviciateship.(154)
The additional rules for bhik.su.niis dealing with the qualifications and
responsibilities of a woman preceptor might be an outcome of educational enterprise for
women. Some rules in this group, for example, state:
Now at that time nuns for two years did not wait upon an ordained woman instructor
[preceptor]. These were ignorant, inexperienced, they did not know what were allowable or
what was not allowable. . . . . Whatever nun for two years should not wait upon an
ordained woman instructor, there is an offense of expiation.(155)
* * *
Now at that time nuns ordained while they were less than twelve years (of standing) [of
standing as a bhik.su.nii]. They were ignorant, inexperienced, they did not know
what was allowable or what was not allowable; moreover, the women who shared their cells
were ignorant, inexperienced, they did not know what was allowable or what was not
allowable. . . .
Whatever nun should ordain while she is less than twelve years (of standing) there is an
offense of expiation.(156)
These rules also imply that Gautama Buddha was trying to raise the status of women
through education, and to bring them to a realization of their abilities in the midst of a
society which oppressed them.
The fourth major group of additional rules for bhik.su.niis prescribes correct
actions around men, proper public conduct and playfulness. As I have mentioned earlier,
these rules are essentially concerned with people's awareness of bhik.su.niis'
daily lives. Because of bhik.su.niis' living situations, they had to be aware of
people's concerns and were required to be more mindful than bhik.sus of such
concerns in everyday life. In other words, the bhik.su.niis were subject to more
scrutiny by people.
The fifth largest group of additional rules for bhik.su.niis is related to
exhortations regarding Observance Day and the rainy season retreat. Two rules (#140, 141)
deal with the admonition of Observance Day. Three (#142, 143, 164) deal with the rainy
season retreat. Three rules (#141, 142, 143) are the same as the rules (#6, 7, 8) of the
Eight Rules in the Chinese Ssu fen lu.(157) Four rules in particular (#140, 141, 142, 143) have caused many
people to think that the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha was subordinated to the Bhik.su
sa"ngha. However, Kabilsingh explains:
When the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha grew into a large body, it was not possible
for them to receive exhortation directly from the Buddha alone. So it was allowed that the
bhik.su.niis should receive exhortation from the bhik.sus, but not all the bhik.sus
proved worth while for such a job, thus paacittiya [paayantika] 21 result.
The vinaya further explains that a bhik.su who may give exhortation to the bhik.su.niis
must be agreed upon by the sa"ngha, must have at least 20 years standing (as a
bhik.su). Then he must have the 8 qualities.(158)
Horner also notes:
Exhortation must not be held by an almsman [bhik.su] not properly deputed. Eight
requisites for exhorting the almswomen [bhik.su.niis] should be found in him. . . .
Thus it appears that he was to be a man of good reputation with a high diploma of conduct
in life; and the idea that just anyone would do was here put out of court. This rule
reflects great credit, and is an instance of Gautama's deep concern where the interests of
the women were involved.(159)
When we also look at the contents of rules 140, 141 and 142 for bhik.su.niis, we
see the bhik.su's position as a teacher or advisor for bhik.su.niis. In
fact, rules twenty-one and twenty-two of the Bhik.su paayantika Dharmas
specifically prescribe the qualification of bhik.sus as teachers or advisors. On
the contrary, rule number 172 of the Bhik.su.nii paayantika Dharmas shows how a bhik.su
teacher who was not authorized by the Bhik.su sa"ngha was ridiculed and felt
ashamed when he could not give correct answers to questions from a learned bhik.su.nii.
Nancy Auer Falk generally describes the rules for bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis:
In most respects the rule approached monks and nuns with admirable equity. Before the
monastic settlements were established, monks and nuns led the same wandering life, free of
the domestic ties and labor that left neither men nor women in ancient India much chance
for serious pursuit of spiritual discipline. Both monks and nuns went on the daily begging
rounds: both held the important biweekly assembly in which the rule's provisions were
recited. Monks and nuns even looked alike; both shaved their heads bare, and both wore the
same patchcloth robes dyed to earth color and draped identically over the left shoulder.(160)
Wijayaratna also explains the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha:
The organization of the Order of nuns was parallel to that of the monks: like the
monks, they possessed a complete Code of Discipline (Paa.timokkha), their legal
acts (vinaya-kamma, sa"ngha-kamma) were the same, and they also had two
Ordinations, the Minor (pabbajjaa) and the Major (upasampadaa). Ten years
after her Major Ordination, a nun was also called an "Elder"(Therii).
Nuns organized their communal life independently, according to their own Code of
Discipline, but with help and advice from monks. Monks had the right to advise nuns, not
to control them.(161)
Jampa Tsedroen suggests an additional reason for bhik.sus to advise bhik.su.niis:
The Buddha made provisions for the protection of the order of nuns against attacks from
outside. He arranged that nuns maintain regular contact with the order of monks, enabling
them to obtain practical knowledge, advice, and inspiration from their ordained brothers.(162)
Some of the sixth largest group of additional rules for bhik.su.niis provide a
safeguard for bhik.su.niis to travel to dangerous places. As I have discussed
earlier, several stories about the raping of bhik.su.niis and the robbing of bhik.sus
or men in the vinaya suggest that the society during the time of Gautama Buddha was
not safe to travel for women.
Now at that time several monks were going along the high-road from Saaketa to
Saavatthii. Midway on the road, thieves issuing forth, plundered these monks.(163)
* * *
. . . . Then as that lay-follower, having prepared provisions for the journey, was
going along last, thieves robbed (him).(164)
* * *
Now at that time nuns walked without a weapon on almstour within (their own) region
(when this was) agreed upon as dangerous, frightening. Bad men assaulted them.(165)
* * *
Now at that time nuns walked without a weapon on almstour outside (their own) region
(when this was) agreed upon as dangerous, frightening. Bad men assaulted them.(166)
When we consider the above stories in the vinaya, some of rules in the sixth
group show concern for the bhik.su.niis own protection and Gautama Buddha's concern
for his female disciples.
The seventh largest group of additional rules for bhik.su.niis concerns
etiquette toward bhik.sus. Rule number seventy-five prevents bhik.su.niis
from serving bhik.sus with water or fanning for a bhik.su during his meal.
Rule number 144 deals with the proper manner for bhik.su.niis to enter a bhik.su
monastery. Rule number 145 of this group is the same as rule number two of the Eight
Rules. This rule will be discussed in further detail later.
Just as bhik.su.niis had rules particular to their way of life and special
concerns at the time the sa"nghas were developed, so too did bhik.sus
have rules particular to them. The following table details these twenty rules special for bhik.sus.
TABLE NO. 9
Paayantika Dharmas for bhik.sus
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.sus)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.sus |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.sus(167) |
| 21 |
Not to preach to bhik.su.niis without authorization of the Bhik.su
Sa"ngha |
| 22 |
Not to preach to bhik.su.niis after sunset even if authorized by
the Bhik.su Sa"ngha |
| 23 |
Not to say at bhik.sus, "Bhik.sus preach to bhik.su.niis
for material goods." |
| 24 |
Not to give a robe to an unrelated bhik.su.nii, except in exchange |
| 25 |
Not to make a robe for an unrelated bhik.su.nii |
| 26 |
Not to sit down with a bhik.su.nii in a secret, concealed place |
| 27 |
Not to go on a journey with a company of bhik.su.niis by
appointment, or set out to travel, even to another village, except at the right time |
| 28 |
Not to board the same boat with a company of bhik.su.niis by
appointment to go upstream or downstream, except in case of crossing to the opposite shore |
| 29 |
Not to knowingly eat alms (food) which a bhik.su.nii caused to be
cooked |
| 30 |
Not to go on a journey with a woman by appointment |
| 32 |
Not to eat more than one meal of alms (food) in a village a day |
| 35 |
Not to eat alms (food) after having eaten enough, without making the
proper provision for leftovers |
| 36 |
Not to intentionally invite a bhik.su who has eaten enough to eat
again |
| 40 |
Not to ask for such excellent foods such as milk, curds, fish, meat,
etc., except in case of illness(168)
|
| 41 |
Not to give food with your own hand to a male or a female wanderer |
| 64 |
Not to conceal the grave offense of another bhik.su |
| 86 |
Not to have a needle case made of bone, ivory, or horn |
| 87 |
Not to have a cloth for sitting on made in measurements exceeding in
length, two spans of the Sugata,(169)
or in width, one and half spans of the Sugata |
| 88 |
Not to have a cloth for covering a boil in excess of, in length, two
spans of the Sugata, or in width, four spans of the Sugata |
| 90 |
Not to have a robe the same size as the Buddha's robe |
As we see from table number nine, twenty rules for bhik.sus are different from
those for bhik.su.niis: one rule (#30) concerns women; five (#32, 35, 36, 40, 41)
concern alms (food); four (#86, 87, 88, 90) deal with cloth; one (#64) with concealing
another's grave offense; nine (#21-29) with relationships with bhik.su.niis. Rule
number sixty-four is concerned with concealment of another bhik.su's grave offense,
which is itself a most grave violation, categorized in both paaraajika or sa.mghaava"se.sa
offenses.(170) In contrast, the
corresponding Bhik.su.nii Paaraajika Dharma number seven refers only to the
concealment of another bhik.su.nii's paaraajika offense.(171)
Some of the Bhik.su.nii paayantika Dharmas might have been inserted later.
"We also find that the number of rules in the nun's Praatimok.sa is
considerably larger than in the monk's version, many rules having been inserted
specifically for females."(172)
Rule number 174 for bhik.su.niis might have been added later, because this rule is
not in the Paali Bhik.su.nii Praatimok.sa, and also it deals with the worship of
pagodas. Kabilsingh says that the Dharmaguptaka vinaya has a particular group of
rules about worshipping pagodas. It is possible that the rules for the worship of pagodas
might have been developed in China, where Mahaayaana Buddhism was prevalent.(173) Rule number 139 does not appear
in the Paali Bhik.su.nii Praatimok.sa, so far as I have discovered. However, the
Paali Cullavagga demands that a candidate for bhik.su.nii receive ordination
from bhik.su.niis first, and then have the ordination confirmed in a ceremony with bhik.sus.(174) Rule number 175 might also be a
later addition. It is not found in the Paali Praatimok.sa but is found in the Ssu
fen lu. This will be discussed later with the Eight Rules.
Comparing the numbers of the Bhik.su.nii paayantika Dharmas in the Ssu fen lu
and those in the Paali Bhik.su.nii Praatimok.sa, we find that the Bhik.su.nii
Ssu fen lu contains twelve more rules, while at the same time the Bhik.su
paayantika Dharmas are decreased by two rules in the Bhik.su Ssu fen lu. It is
impossible to identify the rules which might be late additions because little information
is available. For example, I think that one of the two rules numbered 162 and 163 for bhik.su.niis
in this category might have been inserted later because the contents of those are
repeated.
An examination of additional paayantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis shows bhik.su.niis'
efforts to be mindful in their ways of daily life. Many rules for bhik.su.niis also
deal with specific feminine matters. From the outstanding number of rules for the
ordination of women, we notice that Gautama Buddha was trying to raise the status of women
and to help them to develop their abilities through education. This concern is evident in
the qualifications and responsibilities of a woman preceptor, and in the care with which
the rules for the ordination of women were developed. In the rules for bhik.sus
about exhortation to bhik.su.niis, some rules strictly prescribe the qualification
of a bhik.su as a teacher or an adviser to bhik.su.niis. This suggests that
Gautama Buddha was deeply concerned about the education of women. We also see that many
additional rules for bhik.su.niis in this category were generated according to
their living situations and social context in ancient India.
PART VI
Pratide"saniiya dharmas (Confession)
The pratide"saniiya dharmas(Paali: paa.tidesaniiya) follow the paayantika
dharmas and contain eight rules for bhik.su.niis and four rules for bhik.sus.
According to Hirakawa, the meaning of the term pratide"saniiya refers to the
need of bhik.su.niis or bhik.sus to confess his or her wrongdoing to another
bhik.su.nii or bhik.su.(175)
It translates into the Chinese t'i she ni fa(176) or hui kuo fa.(177) Violation of any of the pratide"saniiya dharmas requires
one to confess the offense in front of a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su.(178) All these rules are connected
with asking for food. The eight Bhik.su.nii Pratide"saniiya Dharmas simply
state that if a bhik.su.nii is not ill, she should not beg excellent foods such as
ghee, oil, honey, molasses, milk, curds, fish or meat.(179) In this category, we see that the rules concerning food for bhik.su.niis
are less strict than for bhik.sus. The Bhik.su Pratide"saniiya Dharmas,
on the other hand, are more various as follows.
TABLE NO. 10
Pratide"saniiya Dharmas for bhik.sus
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.sus)
| Order of Rules For Bhik.sus |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.sus(180) |
| 1 |
Not to accept alms (food) from an unrelated bhik.su.nii, except in
case of illness |
| 2 |
Not to accept alms (food) while reproving a bhik.su.nii for having
given orders pertaining to the meal while the meal is being served |
| 3 |
Not to accept alms (food) from a pious family without a previous
invitation, except in case of illness |
| 4 |
Not to accept alms (food) inside of a monastery if conditions are not
dangerous and fearful, except in case of illness |
Although there are twice as many rules for bhik.su.niis as there are for bhik.sus
in this category, the eight Bhik.su.nii Pratide"saniiya Dharmas are extremely
simple in character and seem in fact to be a splitting up of the single rule which is the Bhik.su
paayantika Dharma number forty in the previous category. On the other hand, the rules
for bhik.sus in this category are wider in their scope. Rules one and two determine
the relations of bhik.sus with bhik.su.niis at meals. Rule number one again
prevents bhik.sus from taking advantage of bhik.su.niis. On one occasion, a
certain bhik.su took the alms (food) of an elderly bhik.su.nii. After three
days of providing the bhik.su with her alms (food), the elderly bhik.su.nii
collapsed of starvation.(181) When
the Buddha learned that, he set down the pratide"saniiya rule number one for bhik.sus:
"Foolish man, one who is not a relation does not know what is suitable or what is
unsuitable, or what is right or what is wrong for a woman who is not a relation. How can
you, foolish man, accept food from the hand of a nun who is not a relation? It is not,
foolish man, for pleasing those who are not (yet) pleased . . . . And thus, monks, this
rule of training should be set forth." . . .
Whatever monk should eat or partake of solid food or soft food, having accepted it with
his own hand from the hand of a nun who is not a relation (and) who has entered among the
houses, it should be confessed by that monk, saying:
"I have fallen, your reverences, into a blameworthy matter, unbecoming, which ought
to be confessed."(182)
The third pratide"saniiya dharma for bhik.sus proscribes against
possible exploitation of a pious family by an inconsiderate bhik.su. The last pratide"saniiya
dharma for bhik.sus deals with special situations in residences.
A comparison of the pratide"saniiya dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus
demonstrates that the violations for bhik.su.niis in this category are less strict
than for bhik.sus. These eight Bhik.su.nii Pratide"saniiya Dharmas are
almost the same as the single rule number forty of the Bhik.su paayantika Dharmas,
and belong to a looser offense category for bhik.su.niis than for bhik.sus.
In addition, Gautama Buddha permitted a bhik.su.nii to eat special high quality
food when she is ill.
PART VII
"Saik.sa dharmas (Training)
The sixth category of the Bhik.su.nii Praatimok.sa contains the "saik.sa
dharmas(Paali: sekhiyaa), while this same category comprises the seventh
grouping of the Bhik.su Praatimok.sa. In the Paali vinaya, the violation of
a "saik.sa dharma is "an offense of wrongdoing."(183) Horner says that the "saik.sa
dharmas are "rules for good behavior, etiquette: the rules regarding matters
connected with discipline."(184)
The "saik.sa dharmas translates into the Chinese shih cha chia luo ni fa,(185) pai chung hsueh fa(186) or ying dang hsueh.(187) These one hundred rules are
exactly the same for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, and are essentially
concerned with correct ways of dressing, eating, sitting, walking, preaching and so forth.
In this category, which has exactly the same numbers and contents of rules for both bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus, we see what the leading role of bhik.sus in the formulation of
the rules in the vinaya really means. Many rules were specifically pronounced for bhik.sus
to focus their ways of life in the vinaya, and then were also held to he applicable
to bhik.su.niis. This causes some people to think that bhik.su.niis were
discriminated against in the laying down of the rules. However, the central role of bhik.sus
as the subjects of the rules in the vinaya only suggests that bhik.sus were
greater trouble-makers than bhik.su.niis in the Buddhist community. There is no
reason to believe that bhik.su.niis were discriminated against in the generation
and production of the rules. The "saik.sa dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 11
"Saik.sa dharmas (Training)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same Rules for Bhik.sus(188) |
Summary of Rules(189)
|
| 1 |
1 |
Dress properly with the inner robe wrapped around the body |
| 2 |
2 |
Properly put on the five robes |
| 3 |
3 |
Not to go to lay people's houses wearing robes like the trunk of an
elephant |
| 4 |
4 |
Not to sit down in lay people's houses with robes lifted up |
| 5 |
5 |
Not to go to lay people's houses with the neck covered(190) |
| 6 |
6 |
Not to sit down in lay people's houses with the neck covered |
| 7 |
7 |
Not to go to lay people's houses with the head covered |
| 8 |
8 |
Not to sit down in lay people's houses with the head covered |
| 9 |
9 |
Not to go jumping(191)
amongst lay people's houses |
| 10 |
10 |
Not to jump while sitting down amongst lay people's houses |
| 11 |
11 |
Not to squat down amongst lay people's houses |
| 12 |
12 |
Not to go amongst lay people's houses with the hands behind the back |
| 13 |
13 |
Not to sit down amongst lay people's houses while joining the hands
behind the back |
| 14 |
14 |
Not to go amongst lay people's houses shaking the body |
| 15 |
15 |
Not to sit down amongst lay people's houses shaking the body |
| 16 |
16 |
Not to go amongst lay people's houses shaking the arms |
| 17 |
17 |
Not to sit down amongst lay people's houses shaking the arms |
| 18 |
18 |
Not to go to lay people's houses without covering the body well |
| 19 |
19 |
Not to sit down amongst lay people's houses without covering the body
well |
| 20 |
20 |
Not to go amongst lay people's houses looking from side to side |
| 21 |
21 |
Not to sit down amongst lay people's houses looking around from side to
side |
| 22 |
22 |
Go amongst lay people's houses quietly |
| 23 |
23 |
Sit down amongst lay people's houses quietly |
| 24 |
24 |
Not to go amongst lay people's houses with loud laughter |
| 25 |
25 |
Not to sit down amongst lay people's houses with loud laughter |
| 26 |
26 |
Accept alms (food) respectfully |
| 27 |
27 |
Accept alms (food) only to the amount which the bowl will hold |
| 28 |
28 |
Accept alms (food) with an equal amount of soup |
| 29 |
29 |
Eat alms (food) together with rice and soup |
| 30 |
30 |
Eat alms (food) carefully |
| 31 |
31 |
Not to eat alms (food) with digging in the middle of the bowl |
| 32 |
32 |
Not to beg alms (food) of boiled rice and soup for own benefit, except in
case of illness |
| 33 |
33 |
Not to cover up soup in the bowl with boiled rice gluttonously(192) |
| 34 |
34 |
Not to look enviously at another's bowl |
| 35 |
35 |
Eat alms (food) with attention to the food |
| 36 |
36 |
Not to eat alms (food) in overly large mouthfuls |
| 37 |
37 |
Not to open the mouth until the mouthful is brought to it(193) |
| 38 |
38 |
Not to speak words with a mouthful of (food) |
| 39 |
39 |
Not to throw mouthfuls of alms (food) |
| 40 |
40 |
Not to take repeatedly mouthfuls of the same piece of (food) |
| 41 |
41 |
Not to stuff cheeks with alms (food) |
| 42 |
42 |
Not to eat alms food while making "capu capu" sound |
| 43 |
43 |
Not to eat alms food while making "phuph phuph" sound |
| 44 |
44 |
Not to lick the bowl which contains alms (food) |
| 45 |
45 |
Not to shake the hands while eating alms (food) |
| 46 |
46 |
Not to scatter lumps of boiled rice while eating alms (food) |
| 47 |
47 |
Not to hold the bowl with dirty hands |
| 48 |
48 |
Not to throw on the ground the water which contains alms food of lumps of
boiled rice |
| 49 |
49 |
Not to cause excrement, urine, phlegm, or snort to fall on green grass,
except in case of illness |
| 50 |
50 |
Not to cause excrement, urine, phlegm, or snort to fall in the water,
except in case of illness |
| 51 |
51 |
Not to make excrement or urine while standing except in case of illness |
| 52 |
52 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who has lifted up one's robes except in
case of illness |
| 53 |
53 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who has one's neck covered except in
case of illness |
| 54 |
54 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who has one's head covered(194) except in case of illness |
| 55 |
55 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who has one's head veiled except in
case of illness |
| 56 |
56 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who has one's hands joining behind the
back except in case of illness |
| 57 |
57 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who has worn leather shoes(195) except in case of illness |
| 58 |
58 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who has worn wooden shoes except in
case of illness |
| 59 |
59 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is mounted on a vehicle except in
case of illness |
| 60 |
60 |
Not to spend a night in a stuupa, except to guard it |
| 61 |
61 |
Not to store valuables in a stuupa |
| 62 |
62 |
Not to enter into a stuupa wearing leather shoes |
| 63 |
63 |
Not to enter into a stuupa holding leather shoes |
| 64 |
64 |
Not to circle a stuupa wearing leather shoes |
| 65 |
65 |
Not to enter into a stuupa wearing boots |
| 66 |
66 |
Not to enter into a stuupa holding boots |
| 67 |
67 |
Not to eat under a stuupa and litter the place with trash |
| 68 |
68 |
Not to carry the dead while passing a stuupa |
| 69 |
69 |
Not to bury the dead under a stuupa |
| 70 |
70 |
Not to cremate the dead under a stuupa |
| 71 |
71 |
Not to cremate a corpse in the vicinity of a stuupa |
| 72 |
72 |
Not to cremate the dead in any of the four directions of a stuupa |
| 73 |
73 |
Not to carry clothes or a bed belonging to the dead while passing a stuupa |
| 74 |
74 |
Not to make excrement or urine under a stuupa |
| 75 |
75 |
Not to make excrement or urine towards a stuupa |
| 76 |
76 |
Not to make excrement or urine in any of the four directions of a stuupa |
| 77 |
77 |
Not to make excrement or urine while carrying a Buddha image |
| 78 |
78 |
Not to brush the teeth under a stuupa |
| 79 |
79 |
Not to brush the teeth towards a stuupa |
| 80 |
80 |
Not to brush the teeth in any of the four directions of a stuupa |
| 81 |
81 |
Not to blow the nose or spit under a stuupa |
| 82 |
82 |
Not to blow the nose or spit towards a stuupa |
| 83 |
83 |
Not to blow the nose or spit in any of the four directions of a stuupa |
| 84 |
84 |
Not to stretch the feet towards a stuupa |
| 85 |
85 |
Not to place the Buddha image in the room below one's residence |
| 86 |
86 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is sitting(196) while the preacher is standing
except in case of illness |
| 87 |
87 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is lying down except in case of
illness |
| 88 |
88 |
Not to preach Dharma to one who is sitting in a proper seat(197) while the preacher is improperly
seated, except in case of illness |
| 89 |
89 |
In sitting on a low seat, not to teach Dharma to one who is seated
on a high seat except in case of illness |
| 90 |
90 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is going in front of you except in
case of illness |
| 91 |
91 |
Going at the side of the road, not to teach the Dharma to one who
is going on the higher side on the road |
| 92 |
92 |
Not to teach Dharma while walking beside a path to one who is
walking in the middle of path except in case of illness |
| 93 |
93 |
Not to walk in the middle of the road holding each other's hands |
| 94 |
94 |
Not to climb a tree higher than the height of a human being, except in a
special case |
| 95 |
95 |
Not to carry a bowl on the shoulder by tying it on a walking stick |
| 96 |
96 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is holding a walking stick |
| 97 |
97 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is holding a weapon |
| 98 |
98 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is holding a sword |
| 99 |
99 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is holding a knife |
| 100 |
100 |
Not to teach Dharma to one who is holding a parasol, except in
case of illness |
Ji-kwan Lee has noted that these rules are divided into ten sections: the first section
(#1-2) deals with the wearing of robes, the second (#3-25) with entering a house, the
third (#26-46) with eating alms (food), the fourth (#47-48) with handling the bowl, the
fifth (#49-51) with making excrement and urine, the sixth (#52-59) with preaching Dharma,
the seventh (#60-85) with worship of the stuupa, the eighth (#86-92) with preaching
Dharma, the ninth (#93-95) with walking on the road and climbing a tree, the tenth
(#96-100) with preaching Dharma.(198)
W. Pachow says that "[t]hey ["saik.sa dharmas] do not come under any
penal section, inasmuch as there will not be any sanction or punishment for their breaches
or violations. The violation of any of them by a bhik.su [or bhik.su.nii] is
not considered to be a criminal act but simply bad manners."(199)
Some people, reading the vinaya, may think that Gautama Buddha discriminated
against bhik.su.niis because the rules in the vinaya seem to have been laid
down mainly for bhik.sus, and many rules for bhik.su.niis were taken from
those for bhik.sus. However, even though bhik.sus played the leading role as
subjects of concern during the production of the rules in the vinaya, this proves
only that they, more than bhik.su.niis, were the trouble-makers.(200) All one hundred rules in the this category
were generated because of the group of six trouble-makers of bhik.sus.(201) This provides supporting evidence for a
better understanding of the central leading role of bhik.sus as the focus of
attention in the promulgation of the various rules in the vinaya, when considered
in light of the structure and contents of the vinaya.(202) When a bhik.su or bhik.su.nii did wrong, he [she] was
investigated by the Buddha, who then laid down a rule for bhik.sus concerning that
misdeed. The rule was extended to be applicable to bhik.su.niis as well, but only
as a matter of form. As Kabilsingh points out, so far no one has paid much attention to
the trouble-makers among the bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis. Interesting points
can be drawn from study of the trouble-makers in both sa"nghas. There are far
more bhik.sus trouble-makers in the vinaya.(203) The formulation of many rules in the vinaya came about in
response to specific wrongdoings, especially by the group of six bhik.sus. For
example:
At that time the enlightened one, the lord was staying at Saavatthii in the Jeta Grove
in Anaathapi.n.dika's monastery. Now at that time the group of six monks dressed with the
inner robe hanging down in front and behind. . . .
The enlightened one, the lord, rebuked them, saying: "How can you, foolish men, dress
with the inner robe hanging down in front and behind? It is not, foolish men, for pleasing
those who are not (yet) pleased . . . .
And thus, monks, this rule of training should be set forth."(204)
* * *
Now at that time the group of six monks put on the upper robe hanging down in front and
behind . . . .
Whoever out of disrespect puts on an upper robe hanging down in front or behind, there is
an offense of wrong-doing.(205)
* * *
Now at that time the group of six monks, having uncovered their bodies, went amidst the
houses . . . .
Whoever out of disrespect, having uncovered the body, goes (sits down) amidst the houses,
there is an offense of wrong-doing.(206)
As we see from the above, the formulation of the rules in the vinaya traces the
struggles which Gautama Buddha had with the Bhik.su sa"ngha, and in no way
demonstrates a special discrimination against either bhik.su.niis or women in
general.
PART VIII
Adhikara.na-"Samatha Dharmas (Legal Questions)
The last category for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus in the Praatimok.sa
contains the adhikara.na-"samatha dharmas (Paali: adhikara.na samatha),
or "rules for deciding legal questions."(207) Adhikara.na-"samatha Dharmas dharmas translates into
Chinese as mie cheng fa,(208)
which means "settling disputes." The adhikara.na-"samatha Dharmas
dharmas are exactly the same in both contents and numbering for bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus. This category contains seven rules dealing with seven different ways
of all forms of disciplinary action within monastic community. In these rules, we see that
both the Bhik.su sa"ngha and the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha use exactly
the same procedures to settle disputes among members of the sa"nghas.
Adhikara.na-"samatha dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 12
Adhikara.na-"samatha Dharmas
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same Rules for Bhik.sus(209) |
Summary of Rules(210) |
| 1 |
1 |
Settlement is to be in the presence of the offender |
| 2 |
2 |
Settlement is to be based on recollection of the offender |
| 3 |
3 |
Settlement is to be made for an offender who is no longer insane
(mentally ill) even though the offense was committed during the time of insanity |
| 4 |
4 |
Settlement is to cause confession of the offender |
| 5 |
5 |
Settlement is to be made upon investigation of the special nature of the
accused bhik.su or bhik.su.nii |
| 6 |
6 |
Settlement is to be decided by majority vote |
| 7 |
7 |
Settlement is to cover over the dispute as grass covers the earth |
When a dispute occurs in the sa"ngha, it should be settled in accordance
with these seven rules. According to Ji-kwan Lee, there are four kinds of disputes. A
dispute arises out of a dispute regarding Dharma or vinaya which needs a
clear decision as to the right or wrong. A dispute arises out of a dispute regarding the
censure of a bhik.su or a bhik.su.nii's opinion, morals, character, conduct
or manner of life. A dispute arises out of a dispute regarding a bhik.su or a bhik.su.nii's
offense which must be clarified as to truth or untruth, and categorized as light or heavy.
A dispute arises out of a dispute regarding the procedure for any formal act of the sa"ngha.(211)
The adhikara.na-"samatha dharmas represent a system for carrying out all
forms of disciplinary action in both sa"nghas. As these rules are not rules
regarding offenses per se, there is no punishment of any violation in this category.(212) I believe that because Gautama Buddha
saw the potential equal abilities of men and women, he prescribed that the Bhik.su.nii
sa"ngha follow exactly the same method in all forms of disciplinary action as the
Bhik.su sa"ngha in this category.
PART IX
Gurudharmas (The Eight Rules(213)
only for bhik.su.niis)
I have discussed the rules for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus above. In
addition, both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus have rules which apply only to
them. bhik.sus are governed by the special category of the aniyata dharmas
as discussed above. The special rules which apply only to bhik.su.niis cannot be
said to comprise a formal category of their own, as I will discuss. They are known as the
"Eight Rules"(Skt. Gurudharmas). The contents of the Eight Rules are
almost the same in the Chinese and the Paali Vinayas, although they are numbered
differently. The Gotamii Sutta(214)
[Skt. Suutra] and the Cullavagga(215)
in the Paali canon both contain the story of the ordination of Mahaapajaapatii Gotamii,
the Buddha's foster mother and his aunt, and the formulation of the Eight Important Rules
(Paali: A.t.tha Garudhammaa).(216)
Five years after Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment,(217) he received a visit at the Banyan Tree Park in Kapilavastu from
Mahaapajaapatii Gotamii, accompanied by a large group of women. Gotamii asked him to allow
women to join the monastic life. The Buddha refused three times without explaining the
reason for his refusal. She and her followers were saddened and left weeping. The Buddha
then went on to Vesaalii. They were saddened but adopted a life of renunciation without
the Buddha's permission: shaving their heads and putting on saffron-colored robes as the
symbol of ordination. Gotamii and her followers followed him from Kapilavatthu to
Vesaalii, the Buddha's next stopping place.
While Gotamii and her followers were standing outside Gabled Hall in Mahaavana near
Vesaalii, they met Aananda, a disciple and cousin of the Buddha. Aananda was sorry to see
his aunt, Gotamii, standing outside the hall weeping with tears, with swollen feet and
travel-strained body. Aananda decided to act as a mediator between the Buddha and Gotamii.
Eventually the Buddha agreed that women could enter the sa"ngha, but he
stipulated that women must accept the Eight Rules. Gotamii accepted them and she became
the first bhik.su.nii in Buddhism. The Chinese vinaya also gives a detailed
explanation of both the ordination of Mahaapajaapatii Gotamii and the formulation of the
Eight Rules.(218) The Eight Rules
translates into Chinese pa pu k'o wei fa or pa ching fa(219) which means "the Eight Rules must not be transgressed." The
Eight Rules are as follows.
TABLE NO. 13
The Eight Rules only for bhik.su.niis
| Order of the Eight Rules |
Same or Similar Numbers of Paayantika Dharmas(220) |
Summary of the Eight Rules(221) |
| 1 |
175 |
Bhik.su.niis who have been ordained even for a hundred years must
greet respectfully, rise up from her seat, and bow down to a bhik.su ordained that
very day. This rule is to be revered, honored and observed, never to be transgressed
throughout life. |
| 2 |
145 |
Bhik.su.niis must not scold or abuse a bhik.su about an
offense, heretical view, conduct or livelihood in any way. This rule is . . . throughout
life. |
| 3 |
not included |
Bhik.sus are allowed to admonish bhik.su.niis, but never
can bhik.su.niis admonish a bhik.su. This rule is . . . throughout life. |
| 4 |
similar to 124 or 126 |
A "siik.samaa.na who has trained for two years in the six
rules must seek ordination from both sa"nghas. This rule is . . . throughout
life. |
| 5 |
not included |
A bhik.su.nii who has broken an offense of the sa"nghaava"se.na
dharma must perform the maanatva(222) period for a half month before both sa"nghas. This rule
is . . . throughout life. |
| 6 |
141 |
On every half month, bhik.su.niis must ask the Bhik.su
Sa"ngha for teachings. This rule is . . . throughout life. |
| 7 |
143 |
Bhik.su.niis must not spend the rainy season retreat at a
residence where there are no bhik.sus. This rule is . . . throughout life. |
| 8 |
142 |
After the rainy season retreat, bhik.su.niis must participate in
the special meeting of both sa"nghas for three matters: what was seen, heard
and suspected. This rule is . . . throughout life. |
As we see above, six of the Eight Rules (#1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8) are the same or similar to
rules in the Bhik.su.nii paayantika dharmas(#175, 145, 124 or 126, 141, 143, 142)
in the Ssu fen lu. As I mentioned in the introduction, some Buddhist scholars,
writers and practitioners have frequently discussed the place of women in Buddhism
according to the Eight Rules. For example, Anne Bancroft says:
There is considerable debate today whether these eight were actually pronounced by the
Buddha or were later inserted by monks. They are excessively chauvinistic, and it is
difficult to imagine the Buddha, having agreed to the possible Arahantship of
women, giving voice to some of them. But they have played and continue even today to play
a major role in the customs of bhik.su.niis towards bhik.sus.(223)
Nancy Schuster Barnes writes:
. . . [T]he Eight Chief Rules, said to have been instituted by the Buddha when he
founded the nun's order, were the most notable and the most stifling.(224)
Gross states:
However, the nuns were required to accept eight special rules as a precondition for
their admission to the order; these rules subordinated the nun's order to the monk's
order.(225)
* * *
Many would prefer to regard the Buddha's negative attitudes towards the nun's order as
an interpolation into the tradition, reflecting the value of later, more conservative
disciples.(226)
Susan Murcott also says:
Perhaps the Eight Special Rules, the acceptance of which was a prerequisite to women's
ordination, were a bulwark against any possible future boldness. Though the Eight Special
Rules clearly relegated women to a secondary status, Pajaapatii accepted them in order to
achieve her primary goal of establishing an order of nuns.(227)
Dharmacharini Sanghadevi points out:
Eventually the Buddha agreed that women could Go Forth provided they were prepared to
accept Eight Great Rules (Garudhamma) which in effect ensured that the Order of
women would not only be answerable to the Order of men but also subordinate to it.(228)
Lorna Devaraja also says:
The price of their [bhik.su.niis'] admission was their unequivocal acceptance of
eight rules (a.t.tha garudhammaa), all of which upheld the superiority of the male.
The first of these was that a bhik.su.nii, even though she has been ordained for a
century, must greet respectfully, rise up from her seat, and salute a monk who had been
ordained that very day.(229)
However, as the table number thirteen shows, the Eight Rules reveal irreconcilability
with the story of the founding of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha and the penalty for
violation of rules in the Bhik.su.nii paayantika Dharmas. Roykan Nagasaki argues
that although the Eight Rules are the most important rules for women who want to be
ordained and must be observed, it is doubtful that they were laid down by Gautama Buddha
when Mahaapajaapatii Gotamii was ordained. At that time there was no Bhik.su.nii
sa"ngha, and training rules for two years under the six rules for a "siik.samaa.na
(probationer) had not yet been instituted. However, these matters are mentioned in four of
the Eight Rules (#4, 5, 6, 8). It seems likely that the Eight Rules might have been
appended after the establishment of both sa"nghas.(230)
Hae-ju Chun, a bhik.su.nii and assistant professor at Tongguk University in
Seoul, Korea, argues that six of the Eight Rules (#1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8) belong to the Bhik.su.nii
paayantika Dharmas, as they are the same as or similar to rules found there. We may
compare the differences in the punishment for any offense of the Eight Rules with that for
an offense of the paayantika dharmas. Violation of any of the Eight Rules means
that women cannot be ordained. The Eight Rules must be observed throughout the bhik.su.niis
lives. However, the paayantika dharmas(#175, 145, 124 or 126, 141, 143, 142)
require only confession, as there offenses of bhik.su.niis are considered to be
violations of "minor rules." Based on the differences in the gravity of offenses
between the Eight Rules and the paayantika dharmas, she also asserts the
probability that the Eight Rules might have been added later.(231)
The first of the Eight Rules does not appear in the Paali Bhik.su.nii vinaya, as
far as I have been able to discover, but it is repeated in rule number 175 of the Bhik.su.nii
paayantika Dharma in the Chinese Ssu fen lu. This first rule is the most
notorious among the Eight Rules and is frequently discussed in regard to the position of
women in Buddhism. It was probably inserted into the Chinese Pratimok.sa by
compilers who wished to put unflattering ideas of women into the scriptures. In regard to
this rule, I doubt whether during the time of Gautama Buddha a bhik.su who was
ordained that very day and did not have any of the eight qualities(232) could receive proper homage from
many Arhat (Paali: Arahat) (233) senior bhik.su.niis. Nancy Auer Falk asserts:
Certainly the most damaging of all must have been the story concerning the eight
special rules that subordinated the nuns to the monks. It purports to tell how the nun's
order was founded over the Buddha's own objection to letting women renounce the world. To
the Buddha's credit, the story may be a fraud, for it does not belong to the oldest
stratum of Buddhist literature. But it was widely circulated as the authentic founding
narrative; hence its charges must have cast a very long shadow on the nun's endeavor.(234)
As I have tried to demonstrate above, the original intention of the Buddha must have
been quite otherwise. The discrepancy between the compassionate and understanding
regulation of the bhik.su.niis' lives, as expressed in the formal categories of
rules, and the self-servingly chauvinistic demands of the Eight Rules is difficult to
reconcile. I fully agree with Hirakawa:
There are eight of these. According to the Bhikhkuniikkhandaka [Bhik.su.nii-skandhaka],
when the Buddha in response to Mahaapajaapatii Gotamii's request, allowed women to become bhik.su.nii,
he also set forth the eight gurudharmas. However, their contents indicate that they
were actually formulated later.(235)
As Hirakawa claims, I believe that the only logical explanation must be that these
rules were appended later. The strongest support for this explanation is to be found in
the puzzling differences between the mere contrition requested for transgressions of the paayantika
dharmas, and the penalty to bhik.su.niis of life-long subservience demanded by
the Eight Rules.
CONCLUSION
Many people have had the idea that bhik.su.niis as women were discriminated
against in the monastic rules. However, from a close and comparative study of the rules
for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, I have presented a different interpretation
of the rules. The additional rules for bhik.su.niis in the paaraajika dharmas
were designed to safeguard bhik.su.niis from potential motherhood, which would be
disruptive both to a bhik.su.nii individually and to the larger sa"ngha.
These additional rules for bhik.su.niis treat sexual matters very seriously for
this very reason. These rules not only attempt to guard the chastity of bhik.su.niis,
but also try to protect them from their fertility. Again, some of the additional rules for
bhik.su.niis in the sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas provide extra safeguards
against falling victim to the lustful desires of men. The punishments for offenses against
the four additional rules in the sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas support bhik.su.niis
by requiring three admonitions, which give more opportunities for bhik.su.niis to
expand spiritual development.
Other categories of rules protect bhik.su.niis from being taken advantage of in
more general ways. Social conditions at the time of the formation of the two sa"nghas
created a climate conducive to allowing bhik.sus to overburden bhik.su.niis
with various demands and tasks. Therefore, further rules were devised only for bhik.sus,
to encourage them in more equitable treatment of bhik.su.niis. For example, some of
the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas for bhik.sus forbid them from using the
service of bhik.su.niis to wash, dye or even receive a robe from an unrelated bhik.su.nii.
Further regulations pertaining to the interaction of the Bhik.su.nii and the Bhik.su
Sa"nghas are found among the paayantika dharmas. This group of rules also
contains the largest percentage of regulations, outside of the "Eight Rules,"
which pertain only to bhik.su.niis. The purpose of these additional paayantika
dharmas for bhik.su.niis is to provide reasonable living conditions for them,
while fostering growth in the alms life, all within the social constraints of the time.
This care for the unique female condition of bhik.su.niis is further seen in the Bhik.su.nii
Pratide"saniiya Dharmas, which are more elaborate than those for bhik.sus.
These allow an ill bhik.su.nii to request foods especially supportive of health,
such as ghee, oil, honey, molasses, milk, curds, and even fish and meat.
Equality of bhik.su.nii and bhik.su, men and women, can be inferred in
several of the rules groupings. The penalties for offenses against those aniyata
dharmas written only for bhik.sus, for example, point up a landmark of
female-male equality. Here, in a gesture of trust in women most unusual for the time, a
trustworthy female lay follower can bring a charge against a bhik.su based only on
her personal eyewitness testimony, in order to force an investigation of that bhik.su's
conduct. Additionally, equal abilities of men and women are presumed in the regulations
for settlement of disciplinary matters in the seven adhikara.na-"samatha Dharmas
dharmas, which are exactly the same, in both numbers and contents, for both the Bhik.su
and the Bhik.su.nii Sa"nghas.
The "Eight Rules" present a thorny problem. These "Eight Rules" are
so different in character and tone from the rest of the body of the Bhik.su.nii
Praatimok.sa that I believe they can be disregarded as later additions, appended by
the compilers, and not indicative of either the intentions of Gautama Buddha himself, or
of the Buddhist traditions as a whole. For these reasons, the Buddhist monastic rules are
consistent with an affirmation of the equality of men and women, and with a reasonable and
compassionate understanding of the differences which were created for men and women by
their biological dissimilarities, as well as by the larger cultural context within which
they pursued the monastic life
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Vols. I-II. London: P. T. S., 1979, 1982.
D. Japanese and Korean Sources
Chon, Hae-ju [Chun, Hae-ju]. "A View of Women in Buddhism," The Pobpo
Sinmun (The Dharma Newspaper) Nov. 1992. Seoul: Pobpo Sinmunsa, 1992.
Kang, Chong-hui. "A Buddhist View of Women's Education Manifested in the
Bhik.su.nii-Vinaya."(Master Thesis) Seoul: Tongguk University, 1983.
Kuk, Muk-dam and Han Chung-sop. Pulgyo kyeyul haesol (A Translation and
Commentary on the Chinese Bhik.su and Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu). Seoul: Ihwa Munhwasa,
1987.
Lee, Chi-gwan [Lee, Ji-kwan]. Biguni kyoyul yon'gu (A Study on the Chinese
Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu). Seoul: Taegakhoe Ch'ulpanbu, 1982.
Mizu, Nagata. "The View of Women in the Bhik.su.nii-Vinaya." The Journal
of Indian and Buddhist Studies (Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenya). Vol. 54, ed.
Japanese Association of Indian and Buddhist Studies (Niho-Indogaku-Bukkyogaku-Kai). Tokyo:
University of Tokyo, 1979.
Ryokan, Nagasaki. "A Study on the Ordination of Mahaapajaapatii-Gotamii
Bhik.su.nii." The Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (Indogaku
Bukkyogaku Kenya). Vol. 52, ed. Japanese Association of Indian and Buddhist Studies
(Niho-Indogaku-Bukkyogaku-Kai). Tokyo: University of Tokyo, 1987.
End Notes
1. S. B. S. Vol. X, pp. 37-8. Return to Text
2. A bhik.su.nii [Skt.] is a fully ordained Buddhist nun. There
are three different levels of ordination in the sa"ngha of women in Buddhism.
A novice nun [Skt. "sraama.nerii] receives ten precepts: 1) Abstention from
taking life, 2) Abstention from taking what is not given, 3) Abstention from sexual
contact, 4) Abstention from lying, 5) Abstention from drinking alcohol, 6) Abstention from
beautifying oneself with ornaments or cosmetics, 7) Abstention from dancing, singing and
entertainment, 8) Abstention from using high or luxurious seat and bed, 9) Abstention from
eating food at a wrong time, 10) Abstention from handling silver or gold (T. Vol. XII, pp.
1042, 1048). When a female novice becomes eighteen, she is required to receive an interim
ordination as a probationary nun [Skt. "siik.smaa.na]. A "siik.smaa.na
a must be trained for two years under the six rules (see footnote 129 in Part V). The
contents and numbers of the six rules differ among the various Vinaya Schools, but
the "siik.smaa.na a ordination basically represents a training period in
preparation for full ordination, bhik.suniiood. It is not required for bhik.sus
(monks). A male novice monk [Skt. "sraama.nera] receives the ten precepts like
a novice nun. When he becomes twenty, he may be fully ordained as a bhik.su. Return to Text
3. Fully ordained Buddhist monks [Skt. bhik.sus]. Return to Text
4. The rules of the Buddhist monastic discipline.
Return to Text
5. The community of Buddhist nuns. Return to Text
6. The community of Buddhist monks. Return to Text
7. See this paper, pp. 89-90. Return to Text
8. The Eight Rules. Return to Text
9. Kate Wheeler, "Bowing Not Scraping," in Tricycle,
ed. Helen Tworkov (NJ: Mark Printing Corp., 1993), p. 27. Return to Text
10. Diana Y. Paul, Women in Buddhism: Images of the Feminine in the
Mahaayaana Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 80 Return to Text
11. Rita M. Gross, "Buddhism and Feminism: Toward Their Mutual
Transformation (I), in The Eastern Buddhist (Tokyo: Komiyama Printing Co., 1986),
p. 46. Return to Text
12. Nancy Schuster Barnes, "Buddhism," in Women in World
Religions, ed. Arvind, Sharma (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987), p.
108. Return to Text
13. Richard H. Robinson and Willard L. Johnson, The Buddhist
Religion: A Historical Introduction (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1987), p.
57 Return to Text
14. Susan Murcott, The First Buddhist Women: Translations and
Commentary on the Theriigathaa (Berkeley: Parallax Press, 1991), p. 196. Return to Text
15. Richard F. Gombrich, Theravaada Buddhism: A Social History from
Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), p. 105. Return to Text
16. Uma Chakravarti, The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism
(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 33. Return to Text
17. Audrey Mck. Fernandez, "Women in Buddhism," in Women
& Buddhism: A Special Issue of Spring Wind-Buddhist Cultural Forum. Vol. 6, No. 1,
2, & 3. Published by the Zen Lotus Society (Ontario: Spring Wind, 1986), p. 39. Return to Text
18. I have followed Horner's expression in referring to the life of bhik.sus
and bhik.su.niis as "alms life." Some Buddhist scholars express
"homeless life" or "monastic life." Return to Text
19. The list of the Buddhist monastic rules for bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis
recited at the fortnightly assemblies. Return to Text
20. See E. Frauwallner, The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of
Buddhist Literature (Stampato, Italia: Roma Is. M. E. O., 1956) pp. 180-2. Return to Text
21. See Frauwallner, pp. 184-94. Return to Text
22. The sta [Skt.] is a dome-shaped monument containing relics among
Buddhists or Jains. Return to Text
23. W. Pachow, A Comparative Study of the Praa.timok.sa: On the
Basis of Its Chinese, Tibetan, Sanskrit and Pali Versions (Santinetan: Sino-Indian
Cultural Society, 1955), p. 42. Return to Text
24. Frauwallner, pp. 181, 185. Return to Text
25. Sukumar Dutt, The Buddha and Five After-Centuries
(Calcutta: Sahitya Samsad, 1978), p. 110. Return to Text
26. Charles S. Prebish (p. 28) says that "[w]e find fully
developed Vinayas of only six schools: Mahaasaa"nghikas, Theravaadins,
Mahii"saasakas, Dharmaguptakas, Sarvaastivaadins, and Muulasarvaastivaadins (From Buddhist
Monastic Discipline: the Sanskrit Praa.timok.sa Suutras of the Mahaasaa"nghikas and
Muulasarvastivaadins (University Park and London: The Pennsylvania State University
Press, 1975). Return to Text
27. Chatsumarn Kabilsingh, A Comparative Study of Bhikkhunii
Paa.timokkha (Delhi: Chaukhambha Orientalia, 1984), p. 97.
Return to Text
The Pali Vinaya was published by H. Oldenberg (The
Vinaya-Pi.taka in Pali, 5 Vols, London, 1879) and was later reprinted by the Pali Text
Society.28. Return to Text
29. The Paa.timokkha has also been published. A partial English
translation of the full Pali Vinaya was done for the Sacred Books of the East
(Vols. 13, 17, 20). Return to Text
30. A complete English translation of the full vinaya, titled The
Book of the Discipline (Vols. 10, 11, 13, 14, 20, 25), was done for the Sacred Books
of the Buddhists. Return to Text
31. Akira Hirakawa, Monastic Discipline for the Buddhist Nuns: An
English Translation of the Chinese Text of the Mahaasaa"nghika-Bhik.su.nii-Vinaya
(Patna, India: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1982), p.8, 415.
Return to Text
32. Explanation of the rules for bhik.sus.
Return to Text
33. Explanation of the rules for bhik.su.niis. Return to Text
34. Chapters on procedures for assemblies and other subjects. Return to Text
35. Kabilsingh, p. 153. Return to Text
36. Ibid., pp. ix-x. Return to Text
37. The collection of the Buddhist monastic disciplinary rules. Return to Text
38. Sukumar Dutt, Early Buddhist Monasticism (New Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Put. Ltd., 1984), pp. 72-3. Return
to Text
39. Gokuldas De, Democracy in Early Buddhist Sa"ngha
(Calcultta: Calcultta University, 1955), p. 60. Return to Text
40. Categories and numbers of rules for bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis
bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis
(1) Paaraajika dharmas (Defeat) ........................................ 4 / 8
(2) Sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas (Formal Meeting)................ 13 / 17
(3) Aniyata dharmas (Undetermined)............................... 2 / 0
(4) Ni.hsargika-Paayantika dharmas (Forfeiture)............... 30 / 30
(5) Paayantika dharmas (Expiation).................................. 90 / 178
(6) Pratide"saniiya dharmas (Confession).......................... 4 / 8
(7) "Saik.sa dharmas (Training)....................................... 100 /
100
(8) Adhikara.na-"Samatha dharmas (Legal questions)........ 7 / 7
Total: 250 / 348 Return to Text
41. I present technical terminology in the Sanskrit. I have followed
Charles S. Prebish's Sanskrit terms. Return to Text
42. S. B. B. Vol. X, p. xxvi. Return to Text
43. E. J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist Thought (New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1933), p. 16. Return to Text
44. T. Vol. XXII, p. 571. Return to Text
45. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 568-79, 1015-6. Return to
Text
46. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 714-8, 1031-2. This and all succeeding tables
are the author's translation from the Chinese. If the reader wants to understand more
fully the rules for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, I recommend that the reader
read the vinaya. Return to Text
47. Who is filled with sexual desire: infatuated, full of desire,
physically in love with. Return to Text
48. The special eight actions (T. Vol. XXII, p. 715): to hold the
hands of a man, to touch the cloth of a man, to enter a secret place with a man, to stand
with a man, to talk with a man, to press against limbs of a man, to make an appointment to
take a walk with a man, to make an appointment for meeting. Return
to Text
49. This rule is violated after three admonitions have been given to
the violator (T. Vol. XXII, pp. 717-8). Return to Text
50. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 571, 1015-6. Return to Text
51. Muk-dam Kuk and Jung-shup Han, Pulgyo kyeyul haesol (A
Translation and Commentary on the Chinese Bhik.su and Bhik.su.nii Sse fen lu) (Seoul:
Seoul: Ihwa Munhwasa, 1987), pp. 136-7. Return to Text
52. Richard F. Gombrich, pp. 104-5. Return to Text
53. Gross, p. 45. Return to Text
54. Nagata Mizu, "A View of Women in the
Bhik.su.nii-Vinaya," in Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (Indogaku
Bukkyogaku Kenyu) Vol. 54 (Tokyo: University of Tokyo, 1978), p. 708. Return to Text
55. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 716-7. Return to Text
56. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, pp. 165-8. Return to Text
57. See this paper, p. 47, rules number 140 and 141 of the paayantika
dharmas for bhik.su.niis. Return to Text
58. Mizu, p. 708. Return to Text
59. Kabilsingh, p. 54. Return to Text
60. Mizu, p. 708. Return to Text
61. Kabilsingh, pp. 57-8. Return to Text
62. S. B. B. Vol. X, pp. xxix-xxx. Return to Text
63. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 579, 718. Return to Text
64. Ibid., p. 14. Return to Text
65. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 579-600, 1016-7. Return to
Text
66. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 716-27, 1032-3. Return to
Text
67. Ibid., pp. 579-87, 1016-7. Return to Text
68. In length: twelve spans of the Buddha; in width: seven spans of
the Buddha (T. Vol. XXII, p. 585). Return to Text
69. Kabilsingh, p. 69. Return to Text
70. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 722-7,1033. Return to Text
71. Period of probation, see more details, C. S. Upasak, Dictionary
of Early Buddhist Monastic terms (Varanasi: Bharati Prakashan, 1975), pp. 158-60. Return to Text
72. A temporary probation, see more details, Upasak, pp. 183-40. Return to Text
73. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 1016-7. Return to Text
74. T. Vol. XXII, p. 1033, 1062-3, 1068-9.
Return to Text
75. Ibid. Return to Text
76. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 212. Return to Text
77. T. Vol. XII, p. 1033. Return to Text
78. When a bhik.su.nii has committed one of the sa.mghaava"se.sa
offenses, so far as I have been able to discover in the Pali Vinaya, she is
required to approach both sa"nghas and beg for the period of the maanatva.
The Pali Vinaya does not clearly give the required numbers of bhik.sus for
the rehabilitation of bhik.su.niis. Return to Text
79. Ian Astley,(A book review of) Buddhism After Patriarchy: A
Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism, in Studies in Central
& East Asian Religions Vol. 5/6 (Copenhagen: Journal of the Seminar for Buddhist
Studies, 1992-3), p. 208. Return to Text
80. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 275. Return to Text
81. Ibid., p. 178. Return to Text
82. Ibid., p. 257. Return to Text
83. Kajiyama Yuichi, "Women in Buddhism," in The Eastern
Buddhist Vol. XV No. 2 Autumn 1982 (Tokyo: Komiyama Printing Co., 1982), pp. 159-60. Return to Text
84. See Russell Webb, ed. An Analysis of the Pali Canon (Kandy,
Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1991) , p. 3. Return to
Text
85. S. B. B. Vol. XX, p. 359. Return to Text
86. Ibid., p. 360. Return to Text
87. Ibid. Return to Text
88. Ibid., p. 361. Return to Text
89. Ibid. Return to Text
90. C. S. Upasak, Dictionary of Early Buddhist Monastic Terms
(Varanasi: Bharati Prakashan, 1975), p. 14. Return to Text
91. Charles S. Prebish, Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit
Praa.timok.sa Suutras of the Mahaasaa.mghikas and Muulasarvastivaains (New York: The
Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975), p. 13. Return to Text
92. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 600-1. Return to Text
93. Ibid., pp. 600-1, 1017. Return to Text
94. Prebish, p. 13. Return to Text
95. T. Vol. XXII, p. 1017. Return to Text
96. S. B. B. Vol. X, p. xxxiii. Return to Text
97. S. B. B. Vol. XI, p. vii. Return to Text
98. T. Vol. XXII, p. 601. Return to Text
99. T. Vol. XXIII, p. 762. Return to Text
100. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 601-34, 1017-8. Return
to Text
101. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 727-34, 1033-4. Return
to Text
102. Bhik.sus can possess three robes: antaraavaasaka
(the inner robe or cloth), uttaraasa"nga (the upper robe or cloth), and sa"nghaa.thi
(the outer cloak). Bhik.su.niis are also permitted to possess the same three robes
as bhik.sus, with two additional robes, udakasaa.tikaa (a robe for bath),
and samakaccikaa (a vest). Return to Text
103. The robe has been stolen, the robe has been lost, the robe has
been burned, the robe has been washed away.(T. Vol. XXII, p. 609) Return to Text
104. Gombrich (pp. 99-100) explains that "[a]t the end of the
rains retreat the laity offer the material for a robe to their local monastery. This
material has to be new, or at least in good condition. The local sa"ngha cut
it up and stitch it together again and then offer it to one of their number - the theory
is that he should be one who has kept the rules of the retreat. There is a special name
for this robe: ka.thina. See more detail, Upasak, pp. 60-2.
Return to Text
105. A robe costing more than four times sixteen old coins (a coin
whose value is about a half-crown). Return to Text
106. T. Vol. XXII, p. 1055. Return to Text
107. Mohan Wijayaratna, Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the
Texts of the Theravaada Tradition, trans. Claude Grangier and Steven Collins
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 147. Return
to Text
108. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 605-33, 1017-8. Return
to Text
109. A measure of length, which is about seven miles. Return to Text
110. S. B. B. Vol. XI, pp. 94-5 or T. Vol. XXII, p. 618. Return to Text
111. I. B. Horner, Women Under Primitive Buddhism: Laywomen and
Almswomen (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1930), p. 274. Return to Text
112. Gross, p. 37. Return to Text
113. T. Vol. XXII, p. 634. Return to
Text
114. Ji-kwan Lee, Biguni kyeyul yon'gu (A Study on the
Chinese Bhik.su.nii Sse fen lu) (Seoul: Taegakhoe Ch'ulpanbu, 1982), p. 220. Return to Text
115. S. B. B. Vol. XI, p. XXV. Return to
Text
116. Kabilsingh, p. 91. Return to Text
117. Wijayaratna, p. 142. Return to
Text
118. T. Vol. XXII, p. 1056. Return to
Text
119. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 634-95, 1018-20.
Return to Text
120. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 734-78, 1034-8.
Return to Text
121. The Ssu fen lu does not give an explanation of "one
who is not ordained," but the Pali Vinaya (S. B. B. Vol. XI, p. 190) explains
"ones who are disrespectful, not deferential towards bhik.sus [or bhik.su.niis].
Return to Text
122. This is a right time (T. Vol. XXII, p. 658): a time of illness,
a time of making cloth, a time of the giving of robes, a time of going on a journey, a
time of being boarded on a boat. Return to Text
123. The wrong time (T. Vol. XXII, p. 662): from noon to the
following early morning before the dawn. Return to Text
124. A right time (T. Vol. XX, p. 675): a time of hot season, a time
of illness, a time of wind and rain, a time of going on a journey. Return to Text
125. T. Vol. XXII, p. 678. Return to
Text
126. A female postulant who is training for two years (or
probationary period) under the six rules (see footnote 129 in Part V ) to proceed to her
higher ordination. Return to Text
127. The rainy season retreat lasts for three months, beginning
either the day after the full moon of June-July or one month after that full moon. For
more details, see Upasak, pp. 198-9. Return to Text
128. (T. Vol. XXII, p. 749) in length, six spans of the Buddha, in
width, two and half spans of the Buddha. Return to Text
129. The six rules for a "siik.samaa.na (T. Vol. XXII,
pp. 756, 1432, 1048):
(1) Abstention from sexual contact
(2) Abstention from stealing
(3) Abstention from killing
(4) Abstention from lying
(5) Abstention from eating a meal at a wrong time
(6) Abstention from drinking alcohol.
Return to Text
130. The Observance Day (Uposatha ceremony) is the end of
every lunar month (on the fourteenth or fifteenth day of the lunar month depending on its
length). The main ritual of this statutory ceremony is the recitation of the Praatimok.sa.
All bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis must participate in this ceremony. During the
recitation of the Praatimok.sa each bhik.su or bhik.su.nii declares
himself or herself pure or guilty of an offense. According to Wijayaratna,(p. 136), the
uposatha ceremony for bhik.su.niis was held in their own meeting hall, where they
were addressed as "noble ladies (Pali: ayya)." Return to Text
131. A "sraama.nerii (Pali: samanerii) is a female
novice of the Bhik.su.nii Sa"ngha. This is the first stage of the three stages
towards the bhik.su.niihood. Return to Text
132. There are twenty-four disqualifications for the admission of a
woman into full membership of the sa"ngha. See more details, S . B. B. Vol.
XX, pp. 375-9 or Horner, pp. 145-54. Concerning the disqualifications for the admission of
a man into full membership of the sa"ngha, see Wijayaratna, p. 120. Return to Text
133. Jung Hee Kang, "The Buddhist View of Women: Women's
Education Manifested in Bhik.su.nii-Vinaya"(Master Thesis) (Seoul: Tongguk
University, 1983), pp. 48-9. I have referred to Kang's overview of the paayantika
dharmas but I modified several classification of offenses. Return to Text
134. Mizu, p. 709. Return to Text
135. S. B. B. Vol. XX, p. 385. Return
to Text
136. Murcott, p. 67. Return to Text
137. Ibid., p. 4. Return to Text
138. Kabilsingh, p. 106. Return to
Text
139. S. B. B. Vol. XI, p. 289 or T. Vol. XXII, pp. 652-3. Return to Text
140. S. B. B. Vol. XI, p. 293 or T. Vol. XXII, p. 652. Return to Text
141. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 187 or T. Vol. XXII, p. 720. Return to Text
142. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 189. Return
to Text
143. Gross, p. 36. Return to Text
144. Thirty three times: 25 times in the Bhik.su.nii Paayantika
Dharmas, 8 times in the Bhik.su.nii Pratide"saniiya Dharmas. Return to Text
145. S. B. B. Vol. XX, p. xiv. Return
to Text
146. Although male probationers are not required to have a fixed
period of time for the probation period, they also have to complete some periods of
training before the major Ordination. Wijayaratna (p. 120) explains that "[a]ccording
to these rules [the rules for ordination], postulants had to undergo a period of
preparation and education under the guidance of their preceptors. Sometime this training
was given before the minor Ordination, sometimes in between the minor and major
Ordinations. Novices had to wait until they were twenty years of age before they could be
given the major Ordination. Return to Text
147. Mizu, p. 707. Return to Text
148. I. B. Horner, Women Under Primitive Buddhism, p. 251. Return to Text
149. S. B. B. Vol. XX, p. 385. Return
to Text
150. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 361 or T. Vol. XXII, pp. 754-5. Return to Text
151. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 363, or T. Vol. XXII, pp. 754-5. Return to Text
152. Karma Lekshe Tsomo, "Prospects for an International
Bhik.su.nii Sa"ngha," in Sakyadhiitaa: Daughters of the Buddha, ed. Karma
Lekshe Tsomo (Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications, 1988), pp. 237-8. Return to Text
153. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 371.
Return to Text
154. I. B. Horner, Women Under Primitive Buddhism, p. 141. Return to Text
155. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 377 or T. Vol. XXII, p. 760. Return to Text
156. S. B. B. Vol. p. 384 or T. Vol. XXII, pp. 761-2. Return to Text
157. See this paper pp. 89-90. Return
to Text
158. Kabilsingh, p. 103. The eight qualities (S. B. B. Vol. XI, pp.
265-6 or T. Vol. XXII, p. 646.): one who is virtuous, one who lives restrained by the
restraint of the Praatimok.sa, one who is possessed of good behavior and lawful
resort, one who sees danger in the slightest faults, one who trains himself according to
the rules of training, one who has become very learned, one who knows the learning by
heart, one who is a store of learning. Return to Text
159. I. B. Horner, Women Under Primitive Buddhism, p. 127. Return to Text
160. Nancy Auer Falk, "The Case of Vanishing Nuns: The Fruits of
Ambivalence in Ancient Indian Buddhism," in Unspoken Worlds, ed. Nancy Auer
Falk and Rita M. Gross (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1989), 159. Return to Text
161. Wijayaratna, pp. 161-2. Return to
Text
162. Jampa Tsedroen, "The Significance of the Conference,"
in Sakyadhiitaa: Daughters of the Buddha (Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications,
1988), p. 48. Return to Text
163. S. B. B. Vol. XI, p. 45. Return
to Text
164. Ibid., p. 323. Return to Text
165. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 317 Return
to Text
166. Ibid., p. 319. Return to Text
167. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 647-95, 1018-20. Return to Text
168. This rule is the same rule as the eight Bhik.su.nii
Pratide"sanniiya Dharmas in next category. The Pali Vinaya (S. B. B. Vol.
XI, p. 341) specifies the eight kinds of foods: ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, molasses,
fish, meat, milk, and curds. Return to Text
169. The Buddha. Return to Text
170. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 678-9. Return to
Text
171. Ibid., pp. 716-7. Return to Text
172. Prebish, p. 17. Return to Text
173. Kabilsingh, pp. 152-4. Return
to Text
174. S. B. B. Vol. XX, pp. 378-9. Return
to Text
175. Hirakawa, p. 375. Return to
Text
176. T. Vol. XXII, p. 695. Return to
Text
177. Ibid., p. 696. Return to Text
178. Ibid. Return to Text
179. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 778, 1038-9. Return
to Text
180. Ibid., pp. 695-8, 1020. Return to
Text
181. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, pp. 103-4. Return
to Text
182. Ibid., p. 104. Return to Text
183. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 121.
Return to Text
184. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 120. Return
to Text
185. T. Vol. XXII, p. 698. Return to
Text
186. Ibid. Return to Text
187. T. Vol. XXIII, pp. 561-2. Return
to Text
188. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 698-713, 1020-2. Return to Text
189. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 698-713, 778, 1039-40. Return to Text
190. The commentary of this rule in the Ssu fen lu explains
that "The neck covered" is an improper manner or a disrespectful manner.(T. Vol.
XXII, pp. 699) Return to Text
191. Literally the term "jumping" denotes acting
undignified in people's houses. Return to Text
192. Literally "not covering up soup with boiled rice,"
implies acting as though one does not already have soup; donors will, on not seeing soup,
presume that the bhik.su.nii or bhik.su has not received any, and thus
donate more. This is a question of gluttony on the part of the bhik.su.nii or bhik.su. Return to Text
193. Horner (S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p. 133) explains: In India food is
made up into balls with the fingers and eaten with the fingers. To make a large ball, that
is a large mouthful, is bad manners. Return to Text
194. ~Naa.namoli (p. 117) explains that "[i]n ancient India
there were very definite customs observed by those who went to visit religious teachers to
obtain their instructions. These customs were not (and are not) empty formalities but aim
at creating the correct mental attitude in the person wishing to be instructed. Thus a
king would put aside his regalia, sword, etc., before approaching a teacher. An ordinary
man would remove his shoes and head-covering when going to visit recluses. When worldly
decorations and signs of power and office were set aside, the mind is more likely to
abandon pride and haughtiness and adopt a humble and receptive attitude." Return to Text
195. Disrespectful manner, see more details, ~Naa.namoli, p. 117. Return to Text
196. Disrespectful manner, see more details, ~Naa.namoli , pp. 117-8. Return to Text
197. Disrespectful manner, see more details, ~Naa.namoli , pp. 117-8. Return to Text
198. Lee, pp. 456-7. Return to Text
199. W. Pachow, p. 49. Return to Text
200. A Comparative Table of Wrongdoings of Bhik.sus and Bhik.su.niis
(recorded in the Chinese Ssu fen lu). TABLE NO. 14
| Categories of Rules (Bhik. / Bhik.s.) |
Wrongdoings of Bhik.sus |
Wrongdoings of Bhik.su.niis |
A Comparative Numbers of Wrongdoings |
| 1. Paaraajika (Defeat) dharmas (4/8) |
4 |
4 |
same wrongdoings of bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis |
| 2. Sa.mghaava"se.sa (Formal Meeting) dharmas (13/17) |
13 |
10 |
3 more wrongdoings of bhik.sus |
| 3. Aniyata (Undetermined) dharmas (2/0) |
2 |
N/A |
two wrongdoings of bhik.sus |
| 4. Ni.hsargika-Paayantika (Forfeiture) dharmas (30/30) |
19 |
11 |
8 more wrongdoings of bhik.sus |
| 5. Paayantika (Expiation) dharmas (90/178) |
90 |
109 |
19 more wrongdoings of bhik.su.niis |
| 6. Pratide"saniiya (Confession) dharmas (4/8) |
4 |
8 |
4 more wrongdoings of bhik.su.niis |
| 7. "Saik.sa (Training) dharmas (100/100) |
100 |
None |
all 100 wrongdoings of bhik.sus |
| 8. Ahikara.na-"Samatha (Legal Questions) dharmas (7/7)
|
7 |
None |
all 7 wrongdoings of bhik.sus |
Return to Text
201. The stories in the Ssu fen lu explain that a group of six
monks committed some offenses, so the Buddha set forth the rules in this category. See
Ji-kwan Lee, p. 457. Return to Text
202. The Chinese Bhik.su-vibha"ngha and Bhik.su.nii-vibha"ngha
has a fourfold structure:
1. A story (or stories) explaining the circumstances under which the rule was pronounced,
2. The Praa.timoksa rule,
3. Stories indicating mitigating circumstances in which exceptions to the rule or
deviations in punishment might be made, and then the finalized Praatimoksa rule,
4. A word for word commentary on the rule. Return to Text
203. Kabilsingh, p. 188, see also comparative table of wrongdoings in
footnote 200 above,. Return to Text
204. S. B. B. Vol. XIII, p.120 Return to
Text
205. Ibid., p.121. Return to Text
206. Ibid., pp. 121-2. Return to Text
207. S. B. B. Vol XIII, p. 153. Return to
Text
208. T. Vol. XXII, p. 713. Return to Text
209. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 713-4, 1022. Return
to Text
210. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 778, 1040. Return to
Text
211. Lee, p. 543. Return to Text
212. Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline
(Colombo: M. D. Gunasena & Co. Ltd., 1982), pp. 121-7.
Return to Text
213. Buddhist scholars translate gurudharmas in many different
ways: the eight special rules, the Eight Extra Rules, Eight Important Conditions, Eight
Great Rules, eight cardinal rules, eight special regulations, the Eight Chief Rules, eight
rules. I prefer the translation "Eight Rules." Return
to Text
214. The Book of the Gradual Sayings (A"nguttara-Nikaaya),
Vol. IV (London: P. T. S.), pp. 181-5. Return to Text
215. S. B. B. Vol. XX, pp. 352-6, or T. Vol. XXII, pp. 922-3. Return to Text
216. The story of Mahaapajaapatii's ordination is in several
different versions but is the same basic story except for a few significant details. Return to Text
217. Horner, Women Under Primitive Buddhism, p. xxii. Return to Text
218. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 922-3. Return
to Text
219. Ibid., p. 923. Return to Text
220. Ryokan Nagasaki, "A Study on the Ordination of
Mahaapajaapatii Gotamii Bhik.su.nii," in Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies.
Vol. 52 (Tokyo: University of Tokyo, 1978), p. 656. Nagasaki compared the Eight Rules of
the Pali Vinaya with those of other vinayas. However, my table comparing the
Eight Rules with the paayantika dharmas is based on the Chinese Ssu fen lu. Return to Text
221. T. Vol. XXII, pp. 646, 649, 923, 1045 and T. XXIII, p. 345. Return to Text
222. See footnote 72 in Part II.
Return to Text
223. Anne Bancroft, "Women in Buddhism," Women in the
World's Religions, ed. Ursula King (New York: Paragon House Publishers, 1987), p. 83. Return to Text
224. Nancy Schuster Barnes, "Buddhism," in Women in
World Religions, ed. Arvind Sharma (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987),
p. 107. Return to Text
225. Gross, p. 9. Return to Text
226. Ibid., p. 33. Return to Text
227. Murcott, p. 17. Return to Text
228. Dharmacharini Sanghadevi, "The History of the Ordination of
Women in Buddhism," in Dakini Issue 7 Summer 1991 (Glasgow: Ink Print and
Design, 1991), p. 4. Return to Text
229. Heidi Singh, "The Value of Precepts," in Sakyadhiitaa:
International Association of Buddhist Women Vol. 4, No. 1 (Honolulu: Sakyadhita,
1993), p. 7. Return to Text
230. Nagasaki, p. 656. Return to Text
231. Hae-ju Chun, "A View of Women in Buddhism" in The
Dharma Newspaper (Pubpo Sinmun) Nov. 16, 1992, p. 8. Return to Text
232. See footnote 158 in Part V above. Return
to Text
233. The holy one, who has attained Arhatship, the final stage
of sainthood in Early Buddhism. In the Theriigaathaa, which contains seventy-three
verses or psalms of elder enlightened nuns, we see that there were many bhik.su.niis
who became Arhats during the time of the Buddha.
Return to Text
234. Falk, p. 162. Return to Text
235. Hirakawa, p. 37. Return to Text
Journal of Buddhist
Ethics